第 4 节
作者:一意孤行      更新:2021-10-16 18:41      字数:9320
  out in Paris; and in March it spread to Germany。 Fear of the revolution led
  the   Brussels   Government   to   expel   Marx   from   Belgium;   but   the   German
  revolution      made     it  possible   for   him   to   return   to  his   own    country。    In
  Germany he again edited a paper; which again led him into a conflict with
  the   authorities;   increasing   in   severity   as   the   reaction   gathered   force。   In
  June; 1849; his paper was suppressed; and he was expelled from Prussia。
  He   returned   to   Paris;   but   was   expelled   from   there   also。  This   led   him   to
  settle   in   Englandat   that   time   an   asylum  for   friends   of   freedomand   in
  England; with only brief intervals for purposes of agitation; he continued
  to live until his death in 1883。
  '1'    Chief     among      these    were     Fourier     and     Saint…Simon;       who
  constructed        somewhat        fantastic      Socialistic     ideal     commonwealths。
  Proudhon; with whom Marx had some not wholly friendly relations; is to
  be   regarded   as   a   forerunner   of   the   Anarchists   rather   than   of   orthodox
  Socialism。
  '2' Marx mentions the English Socialists with praise in ‘‘The Poverty
  of Philosophy'' (1847)。 They; like him; tend to base their arguments upon a
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  Ricardian   theory   of   value;   but   they   have   not   his   scope   or   erudition   or
  scientific     breadth。    Among      them   may   be     mentioned      Thomas      Hodgskin
  (1787…1869);        originally    an    officer   in  the   Navy;     but   dismissed      for  a
  pamphlet   critical   of   the   methods   of   naval   discipline;   author   of   ‘‘Labour
  Defended Against the Claims of Capital'' (1825) and other works; William
  Thompson         (1785…1833);        author    of   ‘‘Inquiry     into   the    Principles     of
  Distribution of Wealth Most Conducive to Human Happiness'' (1824); and
  ‘‘Labour       Rewarded''       (1825);     and     Piercy    Ravenstone;        from     whom
  Hodgskin's ideas are largely derived。 Perhaps more important than any of
  these was Robert Owen。
  The   bulk   of   his   time   was   occupied   in   the   composition   of   his   great
  book;  ‘‘Capital。'''3'  His other important   work during   his later   years   was
  the formation and spread of the International Working Men's Association。
  From  1849   onward   the   greater   part   of   his   time   was   spent   in   the   British
  Museum;        accumulating;       with    German      patience;     the   materials    for   his
  terrific   indictment   of   capitalist   society;   but   he   retained   his   hold   on   the
  International Socialist movement。 In several countries he had sons…in…law
  as    lieutenants;     like  Napoleon's       brothers;    and    in  the   various     internal
  contests that arose his will generally prevailed。
  '3' The first and most important volume appeared in 1867; the other
  two volumes were published posthumously (1885 and 1894)。
  The most essential of Marx's doctrines may be reduced to three: first;
  what is called the material… istic interpretation of history; second; the law
  of the concentration of capital; and; third; the class…war。
  1。 The Materialistic Interpretation of History。 Marx holds that in the
  main   all   the   phenomena   of   human   society   have   their   origin   in   material
  conditions;      and   these    he   takes   to  be   embodied      in   economic      systems。
  Political   constitutions;   laws;   religions;   philosophiesall   these   he   regards
  as;   in   their   broad   outlines;   expressions   of   the   economic   regime   in   the
  society   that   gives   rise   to   them。   It   would   be   unfair   to   represent   him   as
  maintaining       that   the   conscious      economic      motive     is  the   only   one    of
  importance; it is rather that economics molds character and opinion; and is
  thus the prime source of much that appears in consciousness to have no
  connection       with    them。    He    applies    his   doctrine    in   particular    to   two
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  revolutions; one in the past; the other in the future。 The revolution in the
  past is that of the bourgeoisie against feudalism; which finds its expression;
  according   to   him;   particularly   in   the   French   Revolution。   The   one   in   the
  future   is   the   revolution   of   the   wage…   earners;   or   proletariat;   against   the
  bourgeoisie; which is to establish the Socialist Commonwealth。 The whole
  movement   of   history   is   viewed   by   him   as   necessary;   as   the   effect         of
  material     causes    operating     upon    human      beings。    He   does    not   so  much
  advocate the Socialist revolution as predict it。 He holds; it is true; that it
  will be beneficent; but he is much more concerned to prove that it must
  inevitably come。 The same sense of necessity is visible in his exposition of
  the   evils   of   the   capitalist   system。   He   does   not   blame   capitalists   for   the
  cruelties of which he shows them to have been guilty; he merely points out
  that   they   are   under   an   inherent   necessity   to   behave   cruelly   so   long   as
  private ownership of land and capital continues。 But their tyranny will not
  last forever; for it generates the forces that must in the end overthrow it。
  2。 The Law  of the   Concentration of   Capital。 Marx pointed out   that
  capitalist   undertakings   tend   to   grow   larger   and   larger。   He   foresaw   the
  substitution of trusts for free competition; and predicted that the number of
  capitalist enterprises must diminish as the magnitude of single enterprises
  increased。  He   supposed   that   this   process   must   involve   a  diminution;  not
  only   in   the   number   of   businesses;   but   also   in   the   number   of   capitalists。
  Indeed; he usually spoke as though each business were owned by a single
  man。 Accordingly; he expected that men would be continually driven from
  the    ranks   of   the  capitalists    into   those   of  the   proletariat;    and   that   the
  capitalists;   in   the   course   of   time;   would   grow   numerically   weaker   and
  weaker。      He    applied    this   principle    not    only   to   industry    but    also   to
  agriculture。 He expected to find the landowners growing fewer and fewer
  while their estates grew larger and larger。 This process was to make more
  and more glaring the evils and injustices of the capitalist system; and to
  stimulate more and more the forces of opposition。
  3。 The Class War。Marx conceives the wage… earner and the capitalist
  in a sharp antithesis。 He imagines that every man is; or must soon become;
  wholly   the   one   or   wholly   the   other。   The   wage…   earner;   who   possesses
  nothing;   is   exploited   by   the   capitalists;   who   possess   everything。  As   the
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  capitalist system works itself out and its nature becomes   more clear; the
  opposition of bourgeoisie and proletariat becomes more and more marked。
  The two classes; since they have antagonistic interests; are forced into a
  class   war   which   generates   within   the  capitalist   regime   internal   forces   of
  disruption。   The   working   men   learn   gradually   to   combine   against   their
  exploiters;   first   locally;   then nationally;   and   at   last   internationally。  When
  they   have   learned     to   combine   internationally   they   must   be      victorious。
  They will then decree that all land and capital shall be owned in common;
  exploitation will cease; the tyranny of the owners of wealth will no longer
  be possible;   there  will  no   longer  be any  division   of society  into   classes;
  and all men will be free。
  All these ideas are already contained in the ‘‘Communist Manifesto;'' a
  work     of   the  most    amazing     vigor    and   force;   setting   forth   with   terse
  compression   the   titanic   forces   of   the     world;   their   epic   battle;   and   the
  inevitable     consummation。         This   work     is  of   such    importance      in  the
  development   of   Socialism  and   gives   such   an   admirable   statement   of   the
  doctrines set forth at greater length and with more pedantry in ‘‘Capital;''
  that    its  salient  passages     must    be   known     by   anyone     who    wishes     to
  understand      the   hold   which     Marxian     Socialism     has   acquired