in　Protestant　hands。　In　1621　a　West　Indian　Company　was
  founded　which　conquered　Brazil　and　in　North　America　built
  a　fortress　called　Nieuw　Amsterdam　at　the　mouth　of　the　river
  which　Henry　Hudson　had　discovered　in　the　year　1609
  These　new　colonies　enriched　both　England　and　the　Dutch
  Republic　to　such　an　extent　that　they　could　hire　foreign　soldiers
  to　do　their　fighting　on　land　while　they　devoted　themselves
  to　commerce　and　trade。　To　them　the　Protestant　revolt　meant
  independence　and　prosperity。　But　in　many　other　parts　of
  Europe　it　meant　a　succession　of　horrors　compared　to　which　the
  last　war　was　a　mild　excursion　of　kindly　Sunday…school　boys。
  The　Thirty　Years　War　which　broke　out　in　the　year　1618
  and　which　ended　with　the　famous　treaty　of　Westphalia　in　1648
  was　the　perfectly　natural　result　of　a　century　of　ever　increasing
  religious　hatred。　It　was；　as　I　have　said；　a　terrible　war。　Everybody
  fought　everybody　else　and　the　struggle　ended　only　when
  all　parties　had　been　thoroughly　exhausted　and　could　fight　no
  longer。
  In　less　than　a　generation　it　turned　many　parts　of　central
  Europe　into　a　wilderness；　where　the　hungry　peasants　fought
  for　the　carcass　of　a　dead　horse　with　the　even　hungrier　wolf。
  Five…sixths　of　all　the　German　towns　and　villages　were　destroyed。
  The　Palatinate；　in　western　Germany；　was　plundered
  twenty…eight　times。　And　a　population　of　eighteen　million
  people　was　reduced　to　four　million。
  The　hostilities　began　almost　as　soon　as　Ferdinand　II　of
  the　House　of　Habsburg　had　been　elected　Emperor。　He　was
  the　product　of　a　most　careful　Jesuit　training　and　was　a　most
  obedient　and　devout　son　of　the　Church。　The　vow　which　he　had
  made　as　a　young　man；　that　he　would　eradicate　all　sects　and
  all　heresies　from　his　domains；　Ferdinand　kept　to　the　best　of
  his　ability。　Two　days　before　his　election；　his　chief　opponent；
  Frederick；　the　Protestant　Elector　of　the　Palatinate　and　a
  son…in…law　of　James　I　of　England；　had　been　made　King　of
  Bohemia；　in　direct　violation　of　Ferdinand's　wishes。
  At　once　the　Habsburg　armies　marched　into　Bohemia。　The
  young　king　looked　in　vain　for　assistance　against　this　formidable
  enemy。　The　Dutch　Republic　was　willing　to　help；　but；
  engaged　in　a　desperate　war　of　its　own　with　the　Spanish　branch
  of　the　Habsburgs；　it　could　do　little。　The　Stuarts　in　England
  were　more　interested　in　strengthening　their　own　absolute　power
  at　home　than　spending　money　and　men　upon　a　forlorn　adventure
  in　far　away　Bohemia。　After　a　struggle　of　a　few　months；
  the　Elector　of　the　Palatinate　was　driven　away　and　his　domains
  were　given　to　the　Catholic　house　of　Bavaria。　This　was　the　beginning
  of　the　great　war。
  Then　the　Habsburg　armies；　under　Tilly　and　Wallenstein；
  fought　their　way　through　the　Protestant　part　of　Germany
  until　they　had　reached　the　shores　of　the　Baltic。　A　Catholic
  neighbour　meant　serious　danger　to　the　Protestant　king　of
  Denmark。　Christian　IV　tried　to　defend　himself　by　attacking
  his　enemies　before　they　had　become　too　strong　for　him。　The
  Danish　armies　marched　into　Germany　but　were　defeated。
  Wallenstein　followed　up　his　victory　with　such　energy　and　violence
  that　Denmark　was　forced　to　sue　for　peace。　Only　one
  town　of　the　Baltic　then　remained　in　the　hands　of　the　Protestants。
  That　was　Stralsund。
  There；　in　the　early　summer　of　the　year　1630；　landed　King
  Gustavus　Adolphus　of　the　house　of　Vasa；　king　of　Sweden；
  and　famous　as　the　man　who　had　defended　his　country　against
  the　Russians。　A　Protestant　prince　of　unlimited　ambition；
  desirous　of　making　Sweden　the　centre　of　a　great　Northern
  Empire；　Gustavus　Adolphus　was　welcomed　by　the　Protestant
  princes　of　Europe　as　the　saviour　of　the　Lutheran　cause。　He
  defeated　Tilly；　who　had　just　successfully　butchered　the　Protestant
  inhabitants　of　Magdeburg。　Then　his　troops　began　their
  great　march　through　the　heart　of　Germany　in　an　attempt　to
  reach　the　Habsburg　possessions　in　Italy。　Threatened　in　the
  rear　by　the　Catholics；　Gustavus　suddenly　veered　around　and
  defeated　the　main　Habsburg　army　in　the　battle　of　Lutzen。
  Unfortunately　the　Swedish　king　was　killed　when　he　strayed
  away　from　his　troops。　But　the　Habsburg　power　had　been
  broken。
  Ferdinand；　who　was　a　suspicious　sort　of　person；　at　once
  began　to　distrust　his　own　servants。　Wallenstein；　his　commander…
  in…chief；　was　murdered　at　his　instigation。　When　the
  Catholic　Bourbons；　who　ruled　France　and　hated　their　Habsburg
  rivals；　heard　of　this；　they　joined　the　Protestant　Swedes。
  The　armies　of　Louis　XIII　invaded　the　eastern　part　of　Germany；
  and　Turenne　and　Conde　added　their　fame　to　that　of
  Baner　and　Weimar；　the　Swedish　generals；　by　murdering；　pillaging
  and　burning　Habsburg　property。　This　brought　great
  fame　and　riches　to　the　Swedes　and　caused　the　Danes　to　become
  envious。　The　Protestant　Danes　thereupon　declared　war　upon
  the　Protestant　Swedes　who　were　the　allies　of　the　Catholic
  French；　whose　political　leader；　the　Cardinal　de　Richelieu；　had
  just　deprived　the　Huguenots　（or　French　Protestants）　of　those
  rights　of　public　worship　which　the　Edict　of　Nantes　of　the　year
  1598　had　guaranteed　them。
  The　war；　after　the　habit　of　such　encounters；　did　not　decide
  anything；　when　it　came　to　an　end　with　the　treaty　of　Westphalia
  in　1648。　The　Catholic　powers　remained　Catholic　and
  the　Protestant　powers　stayed　faithful　to　the　doctrines　of
  Luther　and　Calvin　and　Zwingli。　The　Swiss　and　Dutch　Protestants
  were　recognised　as　independent　republics。　France
  kept　the　cities　of　Metz　and　Toul　and　Verdun　and　a　part　of　the
  Alsace。　The　Holy　Roman　Empire　continued　to　exist　as　a　sort
  of　scare…crow　state；　without　men；　without　money；　without　hope
  and　without　courage。
  The　only　good　the　Thirty　Years　War　accomplished　was　a
  negative　one。　It　discouraged　both　Catholics　and　Protestants
  from　ever　trying　it　again。　Henceforth　they　left　each　other　in
  peace。　This　however　did　not　mean　that　religious　feeling　and
  theological　hatred　had　been　removed　from　this　earth。　On　the
  contrary。　The　quarrels　between　Catholic　and　Protestant
  came　to　an　end；　but　the　disputes　between　the　different　Protestant
  sects　continued　as　bitterly　as　ever　before。　In　Holland
  a　difference　of　opinion　as　to　the　true　nature　of　predestination
  （a　very　obscure　point　of　theology；　but　exceedingly　important
  the　eyes　of　your　great…grandfather）　caused　a　quarrel　which
  ended　with　the　decapitation　of　John　of　Oldenbarneveldt；　the
  Dutch　statesman；　who　had　been　responsible　for　the　success　of
  the　Republic　during　the　first　twenty　years　of　its　independence；
  and　who　was　the　great　organising　genius　of　her　Indian　trading
  company。　In　England；　the　feud　led　to　civil　war。
  But　before　I　tell　you　of　this　outbreak　which　led　to　the　first
  execution　by　process…of…law　of　a　European　king；　I　ought　to
  say　something　about　the　previous　history　of　England。　In　this
  book　I　am　trying　to　give　you　only　those　events　of　the　past
  which　can　throw　a　light　upon　the　conditions　of　the　present
  world。　If　I　do　not　mention　certain　countries；　the　cause　is　not
  to　be　found　in　any　secret　dislike　on　my　part。　I　wish　that　I
  could　tell　you　what　happened　to　Norway　and　Switzerland　and
  Serbia　and　China。　But　these　lands　exercised　no　great　influence
  upon　the　development　of　Europe　in　the　sixteenth　and
  seventeenth　centuries。　I　therefore　pass　them　by　with　a　polite
  and　very　respectful　bow。　England　however　is　in　a　different
  position。　What　the　people　of　that　small　island　have　done　during
  the　last　five　hundred　years　has　shaped　the　course　of　history
  in　every　corner　of　the　world。　Without　a　proper　knowledge　of
  the　background　of　English　history；　you　cannot　understand
  what　you　read　in　the　newspapers。　And　it　is　therefore　necessary
  that　you　know　how　England　happened　to　develop　a　parliamentary
  form　of　government　while　the　rest　of　the　European　continent
  was　still　ruled　by　absolute　monarchs。
  THE　ENGLISH　REVOLUTION
  HOW　THE　STRUGGLE　BETWEEN　THE　‘‘DIVINE
  RIGHT''　OF　KINGS　AND　THE　LESS　DIVINE
  BUT　MORE　REASONABLE　‘‘RIGHT　OF
  PARLIAMENT''　ENDED　DISASTROUSLY　FOR
  KING　CHARLES　II
  CAESAR；　the　earliest　explorer　of　north…western　Europe；　had
  crossed　the　Channel　in　the　year　55　B。C。　and　had　conquered
  England。　During　four　centuries　the　country　then　remained
  a　Roman　province。　But　when　the　Barbarians　began　to
  threaten　Rome；　the　garrisons　were　called　back　from　the　frontier
  that　they　might　defend　the　home　country　and　Britannia
  was　left　without　a　government　and　without　protection。
  As　soon　as　this　became　known　among　the　hungry　Saxon
  tribes　of　northern　Germany；　they　sailed　across　the　North　Sea
  and　made　themselves　at　home　in　the　prosperous　island。　They
  founded　a　number　of　independent　Anglo…Saxon　kingdoms
  （so　called　after　the　original　Angles　or　English　and　the　Saxon
  invaders）　but　these　small　states　were　for　ever　quarrelling　with
  each　other　and　no　King　was　strong　enough　to　establish　himself
  as　the　head　of　a　united　country。　For　more　than　five　hundred
  years；　Mercia　and　Northumbria　and　Wessex　and　Sussex