as　the　head　of　a　united　country。　For　more　than　five　hundred
  years；　Mercia　and　Northumbria　and　Wessex　and　Sussex
  and　Kent　and　East　Anglia；　or　whatever　their　names；　were
  exposed　to　attacks　from　various　Scandinavian　pirates。　Finally
  in　the　eleventh　century；　England；　together　with　Norway　and
  northern　Germany　became　part　of　the　large　Danish　Empire
  of　Canute　the　Great　and　the　last　vestiges　of　independence
  disappeared。
  The　Danes；　in　the　course　of　time；　were　driven　away　but　no
  sooner　was　England　free；　than　it　was　conquered　for　the　fourth
  time。　The　new　enemies　were　the　descendants　of　another　tribe
  of　Norsemen　who　early　in　the　tenth　century　had　invaded
  France　and　had　founded　the　Duchy　of　Normandy。　William；
  Duke　of　Normandy；　who　for　a　long　time　had　looked　across　the
  water　with　an　envious　eye；　crossed　the　Channel　in　October
  of　the　year　1066。　At　the　battle　of　Hastings；　on　October　the
  fourteenth　of　that　year；　he　destroyed　the　weak　forces　of　Harold
  of　Wessex；　the　last　of　the　Anglo…Saxon　Kings　and　established
  himself　as　King　of　England。　But　neither　William　nor　his
  successors　of　the　House　of　Anjou　and　Plantagenet　regarded
  England　as　their　true　home。　To　them　the　island　was　merely　a
  part　of　their　great　inheritance　on　the　continenta　sort　of
  colony　inhabited　by　rather　backward　people　upon　whom　they
  forced　their　own　language　and　civilisation。　Gradually　however
  the　‘‘colony''　of　England　gained　upon　the　‘‘Mother
  country''　of　Normandy。　At　the　same　time　the　Kings　of
  France　were　trying　desperately　to　get　rid　of　the　powerful　Norman…
  English　neighbours　who　were　in　truth　no　more　than　disobedient
  servants　of　the　French　crown。　After　a　century　of　war
  fare　the　French　people；　under　the　leadership　of　a　young　girl　by
  the　name　of　Joan　of　Arc；　drove　the　‘‘foreigners''　from　their
  soil。　Joan　herself；　taken　a　prisoner　at　the　battle　of　Compiegne
  in　the　year　1430　and　sold　by　her　Burgundian　captors　to　the
  English　soldiers；　was　burned　as　a　witch。　But　the　English
  never　gained　foothold　upon　the　continent　and　their　Kings　were
  at　last　able　to　devote　all　their　time　to　their　British　possessions。
  As　the　feudal　nobility　of　the　island　had　been　engaged　in　one　of
  those　strange　feuds　which　were　as　common　in　the　middle　ages
  as　measles　and　small…pox；　and　as　the　greater　part　of　the　old
  landed　proprietors　had　been　killed　during　these　so…called　Wars
  of　the　Roses；　it　was　quite　easy　for　the　Kings　to　increase　their
  royal　power。　And　by　the　end　of　the　fifteenth　century；　England
  was　a　strongly　centralised　country；　ruled　by　Henry　VII
  of　the　House　of　Tudor；　whose　famous　Court　of　Justice；　the
  ‘‘Star　Chamber''　of　terrible　memory；　suppressed　all　attempts
  on　the　part　of　the　surviving　nobles　to　regain　their　old　influence
  upon　the　government　of　the　country　with　the　utmost　severity。
  In　the　year　1509　Henry　VII　was　succeeded　by　his　son
  Henry　VIII；　and　from　that　moment　on　the　history　of　England
  gained　a　new　importance　for　the　country　ceased　to　be　a
  mediaeval　island　and　became　a　modern　state。
  Henry　had　no　deep　interest　in　religion。　He　gladly　used　a
  private　disagreement　with　the　Pope　about　one　of　his　many
  divorces　to　declare　himself　independent　of　Rome　and　make
  the　church　of　England　the　first　of　those　‘‘nationalistic　churches''
  in　which　the　worldly　ruler　also　acts　as　the　spiritual　head　of　his
  subjects。　This　peaceful　reformation　of　1034　not　only　gave
  the　house　of　Tudor　the　support　of　the　English　clergy；　who
  for　a　long　time　had　been　exposed　to　the　violent　attacks　of　many
  Lutheran　propagandists；　but　it　also　increased　the　Royal　power
  through　the　confiscation　of　the　former　possessions　of　the
  monasteries。　At　the　same　time　it　made　Henry　popular　with　the
  merchants　and　tradespeople；　who　as　the　proud　and　prosperous
  inhabitants　of　an　island　which　was　separated　from　the　rest　of
  Europe　by　a　wide　and　deep　channel；　had　a　great　dislike　for
  everything　‘‘foreign''　and　did　not　want　an　Italian　bishop　to　rule
  their　honest　British　souls。
  In　1517　Henry　died。　He　left　the　throne　to　his　small　son；
  aged　ten。　The　guardians　of　the　child；　favoring　the　modern
  Lutheran　doctrines；　did　their　best　to　help　the　cause　of　Protestantism。
  But　the　boy　died　before　he　was　sixteen；　and　was　succeeded
  by　his　sister　Mary；　the　wife　of　Philip　II　of　Spain；　who
  burned　the　bishops　of　the　new　‘‘national　church''　and　in　other
  ways　followed　the　example　of　her　royal　Spanish　husband
  Fortunately　she　died；　in　the　year　1558；　and　was　succeeded
  by　Elizabeth；　the　daughter　of　Henry　VIII　and　Anne　Boleyn；
  the　second　of　his　six　wives；　whom　he　had　decapitated　when　she
  no　longer　pleased　him。　Elizabeth；　who　had　spent　some　time　in
  prison；　and　who　had　been　released　only　at　the　request　of　the
  Holy　Roman　Emperor；　was　a　most　cordial　enemy　of　everything
  Catholic　and　Spanish。　She　shared　her　father's　indifference
  in　the　matter　of　religion　but　she　inherited　his　ability　as　a
  very　shrewd　judge　of　character；　and　spent　the　forty…five　years
  of　her　reign　in　strengthening　the　power　of　the　dynasty　and　in
  increasing　the　revenue　and　possessions　of　her　merry　islands。
  In　this　she　was　most　ably　assisted　by　a　number　of　men　who
  gathered　around　her　throne　and　made　the　Elizabethan　age　a
  period　of　such　importance　that　you　ought　to　study　it　in　detail
  in　one　of　the　special　books　of　which　I　shall　tell　you　in　the
  bibliography　at　the　end　of　this　volume。
  Elizabeth；　however；　did　not　feel　entirely　safe　upon　her
  throne。　She　had　a　rival　and　a　very　dangerous　one。　Mary；
  of　the　house　of　Stuart；　daughter　of　a　French　duchess　and　a
  Scottish　father；　widow　of　king　Francis　II　of　France　and
  daughter…in…law　of　Catherine　of　Medici　（who　had　organised
  the　murders　of　Saint　Bartholomew's　night）；　was　the　mother　of
  a　little　boy　who　was　afterwards　to　become　the　first　Stuart　king
  of　England。　She　was　an　ardent　Catholic　and　a　willing　friend
  to　those　who　were　the　enemies　of　Elizabeth。　Her　own　lack
  of　political　ability　and　the　violent　methods　which　she　employed
  to　punish　her　Calvinistic　subjects；　caused　a　revolution　in　Scotland
  and　forced　Mary　to　take　refuge　on　English　territory。　For
  eighteen　years　she　remained　in　England；　plotting　forever　and
  a　day　against　the　woman　who　had　given　her　shelter　and　who
  was　at　last　obliged　to　follow　the　advice　of　her　trusted　councilors
  ‘‘to　cutte　off　the　Scottish　Queen's　heade。''
  The　head　was　duly　‘‘cutte　off''　in　the　year　1587　and　caused
  a　war　with　Spain。　But　the　combined　navies　of　England　and
  Holland　defeated　Philip's　Invincible　Armada；　as　we　have　already
  seen；　and　the　blow　which　had　been　meant　to　destroy　the
  power　of　the　two　great　anti…Catholic　leaders　was　turned　into　a
  profitable　business　adventure。
  For　now　at　last；　after　many　years　of　hesitation；　the　English
  as　well　as　the　Dutch　thought　it　their　good　right　to　invade
  the　Indies　and　America　and　avenge　the　ills　which　their　Protes…
  tent　brethren　had　suffered　at　the　hands　of　the　Spaniards。　The
  English　had　been　among　the　earliest　successors　of　Columbus。
  British　ships；　commanded　by　the　Venetian　pilot　Giovanni　Caboto
  （or　Cabot）；　had　been　the　first　to　discover　and　explore　the
  northern　American　continent　in　1496。　Labrador　and　Newfoundland
  were　of　little　importance　as　a　possible　colony。　But
  the　banks　of　Newfoundland　offered　a　rich　reward　to　the
  English　fishing　fleet。　A　year　later；　in　1497；　the　same　Cabot
  had　explored　the　coast　of　Florida。
  Then　had　come　the　busy　years　of　Henry　VII　and　Henry
  VIII　when　there　had　been　no　money　for　foreign　explorations。
  But　under　Elizabeth；　with　the　country　at　peace　and　Mary
  Stuart　in　prison；　the　sailors　could　leave　their　harbour　without
  fear　for　the　fate　of　those　whom　they　left　behind。　While　Elizabeth
  was　still　a　child；　Willoughby　had　ventured　to　sail　past　the
  North　Cape　and　one　of　his　captains；　Richard　Chancellor；　pushing
  further　eastward　in　his　quest　of　a　possible　road　to　the　Indies；
  had　reached　Archangel；　Russia；　where　he　had　established
  diplomatic　and　commercial　relations　with　the　mysterious　rulers
  of　this　distant　Muscovite　Empire。　During　the　first　years　of
  Elizabeth's　rule　this　voyage　had　been　followed　up　by　many
  others。　Merchant　adventurers；　working　for　the　benefit　of　a
  ‘‘joint　stock　Company''　had　laid　the　foundations　of　trading
  companies　which　in　later　centuries　were　to　become　colonies。
  Half　pirate；　half　diplomat；　willing　to　stake　everything　on　a
  single　lucky　voyage；　smugglers　of　everything　that　could　be
  loaded　into　the　hold　of　a　vessel；　dealers　in　men　and　merchandise
  with　equal　indifference　to　everything　except　their　profit；　the
  sailors　of　Elizabeth　had　carried　the　English　flag　and　the　fame
  of　their　Virgin　Queen　to　the　four　corners　of　the　Seven　Seas。
  Meanwhile　William　Shakespeare　kept　her　Majesty　amused　at
  home；　and　the　best　brains　and　the　best　wit　of　England　co…operated
  with　the　queen　in　her　attempt　to　change　the　feudal　inheritance
  of　Henry　VIII　into　a　modern　national　state。
  In　the　year　1603　the　old　lady　died　at　the　age　of　seventy。
  Her　cousin；　the　great…