must　be　exterminated　lest　his　example　corrupt　the　souls　of
  his　pious　neighbours。
  Spain；　of　course；　was　a　very　rich　country。　All　the　gold　and
  silver　of　the　new　world　flowed　into　the　Castilian　and　Aragonian
  treasuries。　But　Spain　suffered　from　a　curious　eco…
  nomic　disease。　Her　peasants　were　hard　working　men　and
  even　harder　working　women。　But　the　better　classes　maintained
  a　supreme　contempt　for　any　form　of　labour；　outside　of
  employment　in　the　army　or　navy　or　the　civil　service。　As　for
  the　Moors；　who　had　been　very　industrious　artisans；　they　had
  been　driven　out　of　the　country　long　before。　As　a　result；　Spain；
  the　treasure　chest　of　the　world；　remained　a　poor　country　because
  all　her　money　had　to　be　sent　abroad　in　exchange　for　the
  wheat　and　the　other　necessities　of　life　which　the　Spaniards
  neglected　to　raise　for　themselves。
  Philip；　ruler　of　the　most　powerful　nation　of　the
  sixteenth　century；　depended　for　his　revenue　upon　the　taxes
  which　were　gathered　in　the　busy　commercial　bee…hive　of
  the　Netherlands。　But　these　Flemings　and　Dutchmen　were
  devoted　followers　of　the　doctrines　of　Luther　and　Calvin
  and　they　had　cleansed　their　churches　of　all　images　and　holy
  paintings　and　they　had　informed　the　Pope　that　they　no
  longer　regarded　him　as　their　shepherd　but　intended　to　follow
  the　dictates　of　their　consciences　and　the　commands　of　their
  newly　translated　Bible。
  This　placed　the　king　in　a　very　difficult　position。　He　could
  not　possibly　tolerate　the　heresies　of　his　Dutch　subjects；　but
  he　needed　their　money。　If　he　allowed　them　to　be　Protestants
  and　took　no　measures　to　save　their　souls　he　was　deficient　in
  his　duty　toward　God。　If　he　sent　the　Inquisition　to　the　Netherlands
  and　burned　his　subjects　at　the　stake；　he　would　lose　the
  greater　part　of　his　income。
  Being　a　man　of　uncertain　will…power　he　hesitated　a　long
  time。　He　tried　kindness　and　sternness　and　promises　and
  threats。　The　Hollanders　remained　obstinate；　and　continued　to
  sing　psalms　and　listen　to　the　sermons　of　their　Lutheran　and
  Calvinist　preachers。　Philip　in　his　despair　sent　his　‘‘man　of
  iron；''　the　Duke　of　Alba；　to　bring　these　hardened　sinners　to
  terms。　Alba　began　by　decapitating　those　leaders　who　had　not
  wisely　left　the　country　before　his　arrival。　In　the　year　1572
  （the　same　year　that　the　French　Protestant　leaders　were　all
  killed　during　the　terrible　night　of　Saint　Bartholomew）；　he
  attacked　a　number　of　Dutch　cities　and　massacred　the　inhabitants
  as　an　example　for　the　others。　The　next　year　he　laid　siege
  to　the　town　of　Leyden；　the　manufacturing　center　of　Holland。
  Meanwhile；　the　seven　small　provinces　of　the　northern
  Netherlands　had　formed　a　defensive　union；　the　so…called　union
  of　Utrecht；　and　had　recognised　William　of　Orange；　a　German
  prince　who　had　been　the　private　secretary　of　the　Emperor
  Charles　V；　as　the　leader　of　their　army　and　as　commander　of
  their　freebooting　sailors；　who　were　known　as　the　Beggars　of
  the　Sea。　William；　to　save　Leyden；　cut　the　dykes；　created　a
  shallow　inland　sea；　and　delivered　the　town　with　the　help　of　a
  strangely　equipped　navy　consisting　of　scows　and　flat…bottomed
  barges　which　were　rowed　and　pushed　and　pulled　through　the
  mud　until　they　reached　the　city　walls。
  It　was　the　first　time　that　an　army　of　the　invincible　Spanish
  king　had　suffered　such　a　humiliating　defeat。　It　surprised　the
  world　just　as　the　Japanese　victory　of　Mukden；　in　the　Russian…
  Japanese　war；　surprised　our　own　generation。　The　Protestant
  powers　took　fresh　courage　and　Philip　devised　new　means　for
  the　purpose　of　conquering　his　rebellious　subjects。　He　hired
  a　poor　half…witted　fanatic　to　go　and　murder　William　of
  Orange。　But　the　sight　of　their　dead　leader　did　not　bring　the
  Seven　Provinces　to　their　knees。　On　the　contrary　it　made　them
  furiously　angry。　In　the　year　1581；　the　Estates　General　（the
  meeting　of　the　representatives　of　the　Seven　Provinces）　came
  together　at　the　Hague　and　most　solemnly　abjured　their
  ‘‘wicked　king　Philip''　and　themselves　assumed　the　burden
  of　sovereignty　which　thus　far　had　been　invested　in　their
  ‘‘King　by　the　Grace　of　God。''
  This　is　a　very　important　event　in　the　history　of　the　great
  struggle　for　political　liberty。　It　was　a　step　which　reached
  much　further　than　the　uprising　of　the　nobles　which　ended　with
  the　signing　of　the　Magna　Carta。　These　good　burghers　said
  ‘‘Between　a　king　and　his　subjects　there　is　a　silent　understanding
  that　both　sides　shall　perform　certain　services　and　shall
  recognise　certain　definite　duties。　If　either　party　fails　to　live
  up　to　this　contract；　the　other　has　the　right　to　consider　it　ter…
  minated。''　The　American　subjects　of　King　George　III　in
  the　year　1776　came　to　a　similar　conclusion。　But　they　had　three
  thousand　miles　of　ocean　between　themselves　and　their　ruler
  and　the　Estates　General　took　their　decision　（which　meant　a
  slow　death　in　case　of　defeat）　within　hearing　of　the　Spanish
  guns　and　although　in　constant　fear　of　an　avenging　Spanish
  fleet。
  The　stories　about　a　mysterious　Spanish　fleet　that　was　to　conquer
  both　Holland　and　England；　when　Protestant　Queen
  Elizabeth　had　succeeded　Catholic　‘‘Bloody　Mary''　was　an　old
  one。　For　years　the　sailors　of　the　waterfront　had　talked
  about　it。　In　the　eighties　of　the　sixteenth　century；　the
  rumour　took　a　definite　shape。　According　to　pilots　who　had
  been　in　Lisbon；　all　the　Spanish　and　Portuguese　wharves　were
  building　ships。　And　in　the　southern　Netherlands　（in　Belgium）
  the　Duke　of　Parma　was　collecting　a　large　expeditionary
  force　to　be　carried　from　Ostend　to　London　and　Amsterdam
  as　soon　as　the　fleet　should　arrive。
  In　the　year　1586　the　Great　Armada　set　sail　for　the　north。
  But　the　harbours　of　the　Flemish　coast　were　blockaded　by　a
  Dutch　fleet　and　the　Channel　was　guarded　by　the　English；　and
  the　Spaniards；　accustomed　to　the　quieter　seas　of　the　south；　did
  not　know　how　to　navigate　in　this　squally　and　bleak　northern
  climate。　What　happened　to　the　Armada　once　it　was　attacked
  by　ships　and　by　storms　I　need　not　tell　you。　A　few　ships；　by
  sailing　around　Ireland；　escaped　to　tell　the　terrible　story　of
  defeat。　The　others　perished　and　lie　at　the　bottom　of　the　North
  Sea。
  Turn　about　is　fair　play。　The　British　nod　the　Dutch　Prot…
  estants　now　carried　the　war　into　the　territory　of　the　enemy。
  Before　the　end　of　the　century；　Houtman；　with　the　help　of　a
  booklet　written　by　Linschoten　（a　Hollander　who　had　been　in
  the　Portuguese　service）；　had　at　last　discovered　the　route　to
  the　Indies。　As　a　result　the　great　Dutch　East　India　Company
  was　founded　and　a　systematic　war　upon　the　Portuguese　and
  Spanish　colonies　in　Asia　and　Africa　was　begun　in　all　seriousness。
  It　was　during　this　early　era　of　colonial　conquest　that　a
  curious　lawsuit　was　fought　out　in　the　Dutch　courts。　Early　in
  the　seventeenth　century　a　Dutch　Captain　by　the　name　of　van
  Heemskerk；　a　man　who　had　made　himself　famous　as　the　head
  of　an　expedition　which　had　tried　to　discover　the　North　Eastern
  Passage　to　the　Indies　and　who　had　spent　a　winter　on　the　frozen
  shores　of　the　island　of　Nova　Zembla；　had　captured　a　Portuguese
  ship　in　the　straits　of　Malacca。　You　will　remember　that
  the　Pope　had　divided　the　world　into　two　equal　shares；　one　of
  which　had　been　given　to　the　Spaniards　and　the　other　to　the
  Portuguese。　The　Portuguese　quite　naturally　regarded　the
  water　which　surrounded　their　Indian　islands　as　part　of　their
  own　property　and　since；　for　the　moment；　they　were　not　at　war
  with　the　United　Seven　Netherlands；　they　claimed　that　the
  captain　of　a　private　Dutch　trading　company　had　no　right　to
  enter　their　private　domain　and　steal　their　ships。　And　they
  brought　suit。　The　directors　of　the　Dutch　East　India　Company
  hired　a　bright　young　lawyer；　by　the　name　of　De　Groot　or
  Grotius；　to　defend　their　case。　He　made　the　astonishing　plea
  that　the　ocean　is　free　to　all　comers。　Once　outside　the　distance
  which　a　cannon　ball　fired　from　the　land　can　reach；　the　sea　is
  or　（according　to　Grotius）　ought　to　be；　a　free　and　open　highway
  to　all　the　ships　of　all　nations。　It　was　the　first　time　that　this
  startling　doctrine　had　been　publicly　pronounced　in　a　court
  of　law。　It　was　opposed　by　all　the　other　seafaring　people。　To
  counteract　the　effect　of　Grotius'　famous　plea　for　the　‘‘Mare
  Liberum；''　or　‘‘Open　Sea；''　John　Selden；　the　Englishman；
  wrote　his　famous　treatise　upon　the　‘‘Mare　Clausum''　or　‘‘Closed
  Sea''　which　treated　of　the　natural　right　of　a　sovereign　to　regard
  the　seas　which　surrounded　his　country　as　belonging　to　his　territory。
  I　mention　this　here　because　the　question　had　not　yet
  been　decided　and　during　the　last　war　caused　all　sorts　of
  difficulties　and　complications。
  To　return　to　the　warfare　between　Spaniard　and　Hollander
  and　Englishman；　before　twenty　years　were　over　the　most
  valuable　colonies　of　the　Indies　and　the　Cape　of　Good　Hope　and
  Ceylon　and　those　along　the　coast　of　China　and　even　Japan　were
  in　Protestant　hands。　In　1621　a　West　Indian　Company　was
  founded　which　conquered　Brazil　and　in　North　America　b