voyage　toward　the　east；　but　the　Lisbon　pilots　who　understood
  the　importance　of　this　discovery　in　their　quest　for　the　India
  water　route；　changed　the　name　into　that　of　the　Cape　of　Good
  Hope。
  One　year　later；　Pedro　de　Covilham；　provided　with　letters
  of　credit　on　the　house　of　Medici；　started　upon　a　similar　mission
  by　land。　He　crossed　the　Mediterranean　and　after　leaving
  Egypt；　he　travelled　southward。　He　reached　Aden；　and　from
  there；　travelling　through　the　waters　of　the　Persian　Gulf　which
  few　white　men　had　seen　since　the　days　of　Alexander　the　Great；
  eighteen　centuries　before；　he　visited　Goa　and　Calicut　on　the
  coast　of　India　where　he　got　a　great　deal　of　news　about　the
  island　of　the　Moon　（Madagascar）　which　was　supposed　to　lie
  halfway　between　Africa　and　India。　Then　he　returned；　paid
  a　secret　visit　to　Mecca　and　to　Medina；　crossed　the　Red　Sea
  once　more　and　in　the　year　1490　he　discovered　the　realm　of
  Prester　John；　who　was　no　one　less　than　the　Black　Negus　（or
  King）　of　Abyssinia；　whose　ancestors　had　adopted　Christianity
  in　the　fourth　century；　seven　hundred　years　before　the　Christian
  missionaries　had　found　their　way　to　Scandinavia。
  These　many　voyages　had　convinced　the　Portuguese　geographers
  and　cartographers　that　while　the　voyage　to　the　Indies
  by　an　eastern　sea…route　was　possible；　it　was　by　no　means　easy。
  Then　there　arose　a　great　debate。　Some　people　wanted　to　continue
  the　explorations　east　of　the　Cape　of　Good　Hope。　Others
  said；　‘‘No；　we　must　sail　west　across　the　Atlantic　and　then　we
  shall　reach　Cathay。''
  Let　us　state　right　here　that　most　intelligent　people　of　that
  day　were　firmly　convinced　that　the　earth　was　not　as　flat　as　a
  pancake　but　was　round。　The　Ptolemean　system　of　the　universe；
  invented　and　duly　described　by　Claudius　Ptolemy；　the　great
  Egyptian　geographer；　who　had　lived　in　the　second　century　of
  our　era；　which　had　served　the　simple　needs　of　the　men　of　the
  Middle　Ages；　had　long　been　discarded　by　the　scientists　of　the
  Renaissance。　They　had　accepted　the　doctrine　of　the　Polish
  mathematician；　Nicolaus　Copernicus；　whose　studies　had　con…
  vinced　him　that　the　earth　was　one　of　a　number　of　round　planets
  which　turned　around　the　sun；　a　discovery　which　he　did　not　venture
  to　publish　for　thirty…six　years　（it　was　printed　in　1548；
  the　year　of　his　death）　from　fear　of　the　Holy　Inquisition；　a
  Papal　court　which　had　been　established　in　the　thirteenth　century
  when　the　heresies　of　the　Albigenses　and　the　Waldenses
  in　France　and　in　Italy　（very　mild　heresies　of　devoutly　pious
  people　who　did　not　believe　in　private　property　and　preferred
  to　live　in　Christ…like　poverty）　had　for　a　moment　threatened　the
  absolute　power　of　the　bishops　of　Rome。　But　the　belief　in　the
  roundness　of　the　earth　was　common　among　the　nautical　experts
  and；　as　I　said；　they　were　now　debating　the　respective
  advantages　of　the　eastern　and　the　western　routes。
  Among　the　advocates　of　the　western　route　was　a　Genoese
  mariner　by　the　name　of　Cristoforo　Colombo。　He　was　the　son
  of　a　wool　merchant。　He　seems　to　have　been　a　student　at　the
  University　of　Pavia　where　he　specialised　in　mathematics　and
  geometry。　Then　he　took　up　his　father's　trade　but　soon　we　find
  him　in　Chios　in　the　eastern　Mediterranean　travelling　on　business。
  Thereafter　we　hear　of　voyages　to　England　but　whether
  he　went　north　in　search　of　wool　or　as　the　captain　of　a　ship　we
  do　not　know。　In　February　of　the　year　1477；　Colombo　（if　we
  are　to　believe　his　own　words）　visited　Iceland；　but　very　likely
  he　only　got　as　far　as　the　Faroe　Islands　which　are　cold　enough
  in　February　to　be　mistaken　for　Iceland　by　any　one。　Here
  Colombo　met　the　descendants　of　those　brave　Norsemen　who
  in　the　tenth　century　had　settled　in　Greenland　and　who　had
  visited　America　in　the　eleventh　century；　when　Leif's　vessel
  had　been　blown　to　the　coast　of　Vineland；　or　Labrador。
  What　had　become　of　those　far　western　colonies　no　one
  knew。　The　American　colony　of　Thorfinn　Karlsefne；　the　husband
  of　the　widow　of　Leif's　brother　Thorstein；　founded　in　the
  year　1003；　had　been　discontinued　three　years　later　on　account
  of　the　hostility　of　the　Esquimaux。　As　for　Greenland；　not　a
  word　had　been　heard　from　the　settlers　since　the　year　1440。
  Very　likely　the　Greenlanders　had　all　died　of　the　Black　Death。
  which　had　just　killed　half　the　people　of　Norway。　However
  that　might　be；　the　tradition　of　a　‘‘vast　land　in　the　distant　west''
  still　survived　among　the　people　of　the　Faroe　and　Iceland；　and
  Colombo　must　have　heard　of　it。　He　gathered　further　information
  among　the　fishermen　of　the　northern　Scottish　islands　and
  then　went　to　Portugal　where　he　married　the　daughter　of　one
  of　the　captains　who　had　served　under　Prince　Henry　the
  Navigator。
  From　that　moment　on　（the　year　1478）　he　devoted　himself
  to　the　quest　of　the　western　route　to　the　Indies。　He　sent　his
  plans　for　such　a　voyage　to　the　courts　of　Portugal　and　Spain。
  The　Portuguese；　who　felt　certain　that　they　possessed　a　monop…
  oly　of　the　eastern　route；　would　not　listen　to　his　plans。　In
  Spain；　Ferdinand　of　Aragon　and　Isabella　of　Castile；　whose
  marriage　in　1469　had　made　Spain　into　a　single　kingdom；　were
  busy　driving　the　Moors　from　their　last　stronghold；　Granada。
  They　had　no　money　for　risky　expeditions。　They　needed　every
  peseta　for　their　soldiers。
  Few　people　were　ever　forced　to　fight　as　desperately　for
  their　ideas　as　this　brave　Italian。　But　the　story　of　Colombo
  （or　Colon　or　Columbus；　as　we　call　him；）　is　too　well　known　to
  bear　repeating。　The　Moors　surrendered　Granada　on　the　second
  of　January　of　the　year　1492。　In　the　month　of　April　of　the
  same　year；　Columbus　signed　a　contract　with　the　King　and
  Queen　of　Spain。　On　Friday；　the　3rd　of　August；　he　left　Palos
  with　three　little　ships　and　a　crew　of　88　men；　many　of　whom
  were　criminals　who　had　been　offered　indemnity　of　punishment
  if　they　joined　the　expedition。　At　two　o'clock　in　the　morning
  of　Friday；　the　12th　of　October；　Columbus　discovered　land。　On
  the　fourth　of　January　of　the　year　1493；　Columbus　waved　farewell
  to　the　44　men　of　the　little　fortress　of　La　Navidad　（none
  of　whom　was　ever　again　seen　alive）　and　returned　homeward。
  By　the　middle　of　February　he　reached　the　Azores　where　the
  Portuguese　threatened　to　throw　him　into　gaol。　On　the　fifteenth
  of　March；　1493；　the　admiral　reached　Palos　and　together　with
  his　Indians　（for　he　was　convinced　that　he　had　discovered　some
  outlying　islands　of　the　Indies　and　called　the　natives　red
  Indians）　he　hastened　to　Barcelona　to　tell　his　faithful　patrons
  that　he　had　been　successful　and　that　the　road　to　the　gold　and
  the　silver　of　Cathay　and　Zipangu　was　at　the　disposal　of　their
  most　Catholic　Majesties。
  Alas；　Columbus　never　knew　the　truth。　Towards　the　end
  of　his　life；　on　his　fourth　voyage；　when　he　had　touched　the　mainland
  of　South　America；　he　may　have　suspected　that　all　was
  not　well　with　his　discovery。　But　he　died　in　the　firm　belief
  that　there　was　no　solid　continent　between　Europe　and　Asia
  and　that　he　had　found　the　direct　route　to　China。
  Meanwhile；　the　Portuguese；　sticking　to　their　eastern　route；
  had　been　more　fortunate。　In　the　year　1498；　Vasco　da　Gama
  had　been　able　to　reach　the　coast　of　Malabar　and　return　safely
  to　Lisbon　with　a　cargo　of　spice。　In　the　year　1502　he　had
  repeated　the　visit。　But　along　the　western　route；　the　work　of
  exploration　had　been　most　disappointing。　In　1497　and　1498
  John　and　Sebastian　Cabot　had　tried　to　find　a　passage　to　Japan
  but　they　had　seen　nothing　but　the　snowbound　coasts　and　the
  rocks　of　Newfoundland；　which　had　first　been　sighted　by　the
  Northmen；　five　centuries　before。　Amerigo　Vespucci；　a　Florentine
  who　became　the　Pilot　Major　of　Spain；　and　who　gave　his
  name　to　our　continent；　had　explored　the　coast　of　Brazil；　but
  had　found　not　a　trace　of　the　Indies。
  In　the　year　1513；　seven　years　after　the　death　of　Columbus；
  the　truth　at　last　began　to　dawn　upon　the　geographers　of
  Europe。　Vasco　Nunez　de　Balboa　had　crossed　the　Isthmus　of
  Panama；　had　climbed　the　famous　peak　in　Darien；　and　had
  looked　down　upon　a　vast　expanse　of　water　which　seemed　to
  suggest　the　existence　of　another　ocean。
  Finally　in　the　year　1519　a　fleet　of　five　small　Spanish　ships
  under　command　of　the　Portuguese　navigator；　Ferdinand　de
  Magellan；　sailed　westward　（and　not　eastward　since　that　route；
  was　absolutely　in　the　hands　of　the　Portuguese　who　allowed　no
  competition）　in　search　of　the　Spice　Islands。　Magellan　crossed
  the　Atlantic　between　Africa　and　Brazil　and　sailed　southward。
  He　reached　a　narrow　channel　between　the　southernmost　point
  of　Patagonia；　the　‘‘land　of　the　people　with　the　big　feet；''　and
  the　Fire　Island　（so　named　on　account　of　a　fire；　the　only　sign　of
  the　existence　of　natives；　which　the　sailors　watched　one　night）。
  For　almost　five　weeks　the　ships　of　Magellan　were　at　the　mercy
  of　the　terrible　storms　and　blizzards　which　swept　through　the
  straits。　A　mutiny　broke　out　among　the　sailors。　Magellan
  suppressed　it　with　terrible　severity　and　sent　two　of　his　men
  on　shore　where