THROUGH　THE　BONDS　OF　THEIR　NARROW
  MEDIAEVAL　LIMITATIONS；　THEY　HAD　TO
  HAVE　MORE　ROOM　FOR　THEIR　WANDERINGS。
  THE　EUROPEAN　WORLD　HAD
  GROWN　TOO　SMALL　FOR　THEIR　AMBITIONS。
  IT　WAS　THE　TIME　OF　THE　GREAT
  VOYAGES　OF　DISCOVERY
  THE　Crusades　had　been　a　lesson　in　the　liberal　art　of　travelling。
  But　very　few　people　had　ever　ventured　beyond　the　well…
  known　beaten　track　which　led　from　Venice　to　Jaffe。　In　the
  thirteenth　century　the　Polo　brothers；　merchants　of　Venice；
  had　wandered　across　the　great　Mongolian　desert　and　after
  climbing　mountains　as　high　as　the　moon；　they　had　found　their
  way　to　the　court　of　the　great　Khan　of　Cathay；　the　mighty
  emperor　of　China。　The　son　of　one　of　the　Polos；　by　the　name
  of　Marco；　had　written　a　book　about　their　adventures；　which
  covered　a　period　of　more　than　twenty　years。　The　astonished
  world　had　gaped　at　his　descriptions　of　the　golden　towers　of
  the　strange　island　of　Zipangu；　which　was　his　Italian　way　of
  spelling　Japan。　Many　people　had　wanted　to　go　east；　that
  they　might　find　this　gold…land　and　grow　rich。　But　the　trip　was
  too　far　and　too　dangerous　and　so　they　stayed　at　home。
  Of　course；　there　was　always　the　possibility　of　making　the
  voyage　by　sea。　But　the　sea　was　very　unpopular　in　the　Middle
  Ages　and　for　many　very　good　reasons。　In　the　first　place；　ships
  were　very　small。　The　vessels　on　which　Magellan　made　his
  famous　trip　around　the　world；　which　lasted　many　years；　were
  not　as　large　as　a　modern　ferryboat。　They　carried　from　twenty
  to　fifty　men；　who　lived　in　dingy　quarters　（too　low　to　allow　any
  of　them　to　stand　up　straight）　and　the　sailors　were　obliged　to
  eat　poorly　cooked　food　as　the　kitchen　arrangements　were　very
  bad　and　no　fire　could　be　made　whenever　the　weather　was　the
  least　bit　rough。　The　mediaeval　world　knew　how　to　pickle　herring
  and　how　to　dry　fish。　But　there　were　no　canned　goods
  and　fresh　vegetables　were　never　seen　on　the　bill　of　fare　as
  soon　as　the　coast　had　been　left　behind。　Water　was　carried　in
  small　barrels。　It　soon　became　stale　and　then　tasted　of　rotten
  wood　and　iron　rust　and　was　full　of　slimy　growing　things。　As
  the　people　of　the　Middle　Ages　knew　nothing　about　microbes
  （Roger　Bacon；　the　learned　monk　of　the　thirteenth　century
  seems　to　have　suspected　their　existence；　but　he　wisely　kept
  his　discovery　to　himself）　they　often　drank　unclean　water　and
  sometimes　the　whole　crew　died　of　typhoid　fever。　Indeed　the
  mortality　on　board　the　ships　of　the　earliest　navigators　was
  terrible。　Of　the　two　hundred　sailors　who　in　the　year　1519　left
  Seville　to　accompany　Magellan　on　his　famous　voyage　around
  the　world；　only　eighteen　returned。　As　late　as　the　seventeenth
  century　when　there　was　a　brisk　trade　between　western　Europe
  and　the　Indies；　a　mortality　of　40　percent　was　nothing　unusual
  for　a　trip　from　Amsterdam　to　Batavia　and　back。　The　greater
  part　of　these　victims　died　of　scurvy；　a　disease　which　is　caused
  by　lack　of　fresh　vegetables　and　which　affects　the　gums　and
  poisons　the　blood　until　the　patient　dies　of　sheer　exhaustion。
  Under　those　circumstances　you　will　understand　that　the　sea
  did　not　attract　the　best　elements　of　the　population。　Famous
  discoverers　like　Magellan　and　Columbus　and　Vasco　da　Gama
  travelled　at　the　head　of　crews　that　were　almost　entirely　composed
  of　ex…jailbirds；　future　murderers　and　pickpockets　out
  of　a　Job。
  These　navigators　certainly　deserve　our　admiration　for　the
  courage　and　the　pluck　with　which　they　accomplished　their
  hopeless　tasks　in　the　face　of　difficulties　of　which　the　people　of
  our　own　comfortable　world　can　have　no　conception。　Their
  ships　were　leaky。　The　rigging　was　clumsy。　Since　the　middle
  of　the　thirteenth　century　they　had　possessed　some　sort　of　a
  compass　（which　had　come　to　Europe　from　China　by　way　of
  Arabia　and　the　Crusades）　but　they　had　very　bad　and　incorrect
  maps。　They　set　their　course　by　God　and　by　guess。　If　luck
  was　with　them　they　returned　after　one　or　two　or　three　years。
  In　the　other　case；　their　bleeched　bones　remained　behind　on
  some　lonely　beach。　But　they　were　true　pioneers。　They　gambled
  with　luck。　Life　to　them　was　a　glorious　adventure。　And
  all　the　suffering；　the　thirst　and　the　hunger　and　the　pain　were
  forgotten　when　their　eyes　beheld　the　dim　outlines　of　a　new　coast
  or　the　placid　waters　of　an　ocean　that　had　lain　forgotten　since
  the　beginning　of　time。
  Again　I　wish　that　I　could　make　this　book　a　thousand　pages
  long。　The　subject　of　the　early　discoveries　is　so　fascinating。
  But　history；　to　give　you　a　true　idea　of　past　times；　should　be
  like　those　etchings　which　Rembrandt　used　to　make。　It　should
  cast　a　vivid　light　on　certain　important　causes；　on　those　which
  are　best　and　greatest。　All　the　rest　should　be　left　in　the　shadow
  or　should　be　indicated　by　a　few　lines。　And　in　this　chapter　I
  can　only　give　you　a　short　list　of　the　most　important　discoveries。
  Keep　in　mind　that　all　during　the　fourteenth　and　fifteenth
  centuries　the　navigators　were　trying　to　accomplish　just　ONE
  THINGthey　wanted　to　find　a　comfortable　and　safe　road　to　the
  empire　of　Cathay　（China）；　to　the　island　of　Zipangu　（Japan）
  and　to　those　mysterious　islands；　where　grew　the　spices　which
  the　mediaeval　world　had　come　to　like　since　the　days　of　the
  Crusades；　and　which　people　needed　in　those　days　before　the
  introduction　of　cold　storage；　when　meat　and　fish　spoiled　very
  quickly　and　could　only　be　eaten　after　a　liberal　sprinkling　of
  pepper　or　nutmeg。
  The　Venetians　and　the　Genoese　had　been　the　great　navigators
  of　the　Mediterranean；　but　the　honour　for　exploring　the
  coast　of　the　Atlantic　goes　to　the　Portuguese。　Spain　and　Portugal
  were　full　of　that　patriotic　energy　which　their　age…old
  struggle　against　the　Moorish　invaders　had　developed。　Such
  energy；　once　it　exists；　can　easily　be　forced　into　new　channels。
  In　the　thirteenth　century；　King　Alphonso　III　had　conquered
  the　kingdom　of　Algarve　in　the　southwestern　corner　of　the
  Spanish　peninsula　and　had　added　it　to　his　dominions。　In　the
  next　century；　the　Portuguese　had　turned　the　tables　on　the
  Mohammedans；　had　crossed　the　straits　of　Gibraltar　and　had
  taken　possession　of　Ceuta；　opposite　the　Arabic　city　of　Ta'Rifa
  （a　word　which　in　Arabic　means　‘‘inventory''　and　which　by　way
  of　the　Spanish　language　has　come　down　to　us　as　‘‘tariff；''）　and
  Tangiers；　which　became　the　capital　of　an　African　addition　to
  Algarve。
  They　were　ready　to　begin　their　career　as　explorers。
  In　the　year　1415；　Prince　Henry；　known　as　Henry　the
  Navigator；　the　son　of　John　I　of　Portugal　and　Philippa；　the
  daughter　of　John　of　Gaunt　（about　whom　you　can　read　in
  Richard　II；　a　play　by　William　Shakespeare）　began　to　make
  preparations　for　the　systematic　exploration　of　northwestern
  Africa。　Before　this；　that　hot　and　sandy　coast　had　been　visited
  by　the　Phoenicians　and　by　the　Norsemen；　who　remembered　it
  as　the　home　of　the　hairy　‘‘wild　man''　whom　we　have　come　to
  know　as　the　gorilla。　One　after　another；　Prince　Henry
  and　his　captains　discovered　the　Canary　Islandsre…discovered
  the　island　of　Madeira　which　a　century　before　had　been　visited
  by　a　Genoese　ship；　carefully　charted　the　Azores　which　had
  been　vaguely　known　to　both　the　Portuguese　and　the　Spaniards；
  and　caught　a　glimpse　of　the　mouth　of　the　Senegal　River　on
  the　west　coast　of　Africa；　which　they　supposed　to　be　the　western
  mouth　of　the　Nile。　At　last；　by　the　middle　of　the　Fifteenth
  Century；　they　saw　Cape　Verde；　or　the　Green　Cape；　and　the
  Cape　Verde　Islands；　which　lie　almost　halfway　between　the
  coast　of　Africa　and　Brazil。
  But　Henry　did　not　restrict　himself　in　his　investigations　to
  the　waters　of　the　Ocean。　He　was　Grand　Master　of　the　Order
  of　Christ。　This　was　a　Portuguese　continuation　of　the　crusading
  order　of　the　Templars　which　had　been　abolished　by
  Pope　Clement　V　in　the　year　1312　at　the　request　of　King
  Philip　the　Fair　of　France；　who　had　improved　the　occasion　by
  burning　his　own　Templars　at　the　stake　and　stealing　all　their
  possessions。　Prince　Henry　used　the　revenues　of　the　domains
  of　his　religious　order　to　equip　several　expeditions　which　explored
  the　hinterland　of　the　Sahara　and　of　the　coast　of　Guinea。
  But　he　was　still　very　much　a　son　of　the　Middle　Ages　and
  spent　a　great　deal　of　time　and　wasted　a　lot　of　money　upon　a
  search　for　the　mysterious　‘‘Presser　John；''　the　mythical　Christian
  Priest　who　was　said　to　be　the　Emperor　of　a　vast　empire
  ‘‘situated　somewhere　in　the　east。''　The　story　of　this　strange
  potentate　had　first　been　told　in　Europe　in　the　middle　of　the
  twelfth　century。　For　three　hundred　years　people　had　tried
  to　find　‘‘Presser　John''　and　his　descendants　Henry　took　part
  in　the　search。　Thirty　years　after　his　death；　the　riddle　was
  solved。
  In　the　year　1486　Bartholomew　Diaz；　trying　to　find　the　land
  of　Prester　John　by　sea；　had　reached　the　southernmost　point
  of　Africa。　At　first　he　called　it　the　Storm　Cape；　on　account　of
  the　strong　winds　which　had　prevented　him　from　continuing　his
  voyage　toward　the　east；　but　the　Lisbon　pilots　who　understood
  the　importance