had　been　an　evil。　But　he　stood　alone。　He　had　fought　the
  battle　of　a　time　that　was　dead　and　gone。　The　Pope　in　Rome
  never　moved　a　finger　to　save　him。　On　the　contrary；　he　approved
  of　his　‘‘faithful　Florentines''　when　they　dragged　Savonarola
  to　the　gallows；　hanged　him　and　burned　his　body　amidst
  the　cheerful　howling　and　yelling　of　the　mob。
  It　was　a　sad　ending；　but　quite　inevitable。　Savonarola
  would　have　been　a　great　man　in　the　eleventh　century。　In　the
  fifteenth　century　he　was　merely　the　leader　of　a　lost　cause。
  For　better　or　worse；　the　Middle　Ages　had　come　to　an　end　when
  the　Pope　had　turned　humanist　and　when　the　Vatican　became
  the　most　important　museum　of　Roman　and　Greek　antiquities。
  THE　AGE　OF　EXPRESSION
  THE　PEOPLE　BEGAN　TO　FEEL　THE　NEED　OF
  GIVING　EXPRESSION　TO　THEIR　NEWLY
  DISCOVERED　JOY　OF　LIVING。　THEY　EXPRESSED
  THEIR　HAPPINESS　IN　POETRY
  AND　IN　SCULPTURE　AND　IN　ARCHITECTURE
  AND　IN　PAINTING　AND　IN　THE
  BOOKS　THEY　PRINTED
  IN　the　year　1471　there　died　a　pious　old　man　who　had　spent
  seventy…two　of　his　ninety…one　years　behind　the　sheltering　walls
  of　the　cloister　of　Mount　St。　Agnes　near　the　good　town　of
  Zwolle；　the　old　Dutch　Hanseatic　city　on　the　river　Ysel。　He
  was　known　as　Brother　Thomas　and　because　he　had　been　born
  in　the　village　of　Kempen；　he　was　called　Thomas　a　Kempis。
  At　the　age　of　twelve　he　had　been　sent　to　Deventer；　where
  Gerhard　Groot；　a　brilliant　graduate　of　the　universities　of
  Paris；　Cologne　and　Prague；　and　famous　as　a　wandering
  preacher；　had　founded　the　Society　of　the　Brothers　of　the
  Common　Life。　The　good　brothers　were　humble　laymen　who
  tried　to　live　the　simple　life　of　the　early　Apostles　of　Christ
  while　working　at　their　regular　jobs　as　carpenters　and　house…
  painters　and　stone　masons。　They　maintained　an　excellent
  school；　that　deserving　boys　of　poor　parents　might　be　taught
  the　wisdom　of　the　Fathers　of　the　church。　At　this　school；
  little　Thomas　had　learned　how　to　conjugate　Latin　verbs　and
  how　to　copy　manuscripts。　Then　he　had　taken　his　vows；　had
  put　his　little　bundle　of　books　upon　his　back；　had　wandered　to
  Zwolle　and　with　a　sigh　of　relief　he　had　closed　the　door　upon　a
  turbulent　world　which　did　not　attract　him。
  Thomas　lived　in　an　age　of　turmoil；　pestilence　and　sudden
  death。　In　central　Europe；　in　Bohemia；　the　devoted　disciples　of
  Johannus　Huss；　the　friend　and　follower　of　John　Wycliffe；　the
  English　reformer；　were　avenging　with　a　terrible　warfare　the　death
  of　their　beloved　leader　who　had　been　burned　at　the　stake　by　order　of
  that　same　Council　of　Constance；　which　had　promised　him　a　safe…conduct
  if　he　would　come　to　Switzerland　and　explain　his　doctrines　to　the　Pope；
  the　Emperor；　twenty…three　cardinals；　thirty…three　archbishops　and　bishops；
  one　hundred　and　fifty　abbots　and　more　than　a　hundred　princes　and
  dukes　who　had　gathered　together　to　reform　their　church。
  In　the　west；　France　had　been　fighting　for　a　hundred　years　that
  she　might　drive　the　English　from　her　territories　and　just　then　was
  saved　from　utter　defeat　by　the　fortunate　appearance　of　Joan　of　Arc。
  And　no　sooner　had　this　struggle　come　to　an　end　than　France　and　Burgundy
  were　at　each　other's　throats；　engaged　upon　a　struggle　of　life　and　death
  for　the　supremacy　of　western　Europe。
  In　the　south；　a　Pope　at　Rome　was　calling　the　curses　of
  Heaven　down　upon　a　second　Pope　who　resided　at　Avignon；
  in　southern　France；　and　who　retaliated　in　kind。　In　the
  far　east　the　Turks　were　destroying　the　last　remnants　of　the
  Roman　Empire　and　the　Russians　had　started　upon　a　final
  crusade　to　crush　the　power　of　their　Tartar　masters。
  But　of　all　this；　Brother　Thomas　in　his　quiet　cell　never
  heard。　He　had　his　manuscripts　and　his　own　thoughts　and
  he　was　contented。　He　poured　his　love　of　God　into　a　little
  volume。　He　called　it　the　Imitation　of　Christ。　It　has　since
  been　translated　into　more　languages　than　any　other　book
  save　the　Bible。　It　has　been　read　by　quite　as　many　people
  as　ever　studied　the　Holy　Scriptures。　It　has　influenced　the
  lives　of　countless　millions。　And　it　was　the　work　of　a　man
  whose　highest　ideal　of　existence　was　expressed　in　the　simple
  wish　that　‘‘he　might　quietly　spend　his　days　sitting　in　a　little
  corner　with　a　little　book。''
  Good　Brother　Thomas　represented　the　purest　ideals　of　the
  Middle　Ages。　Surrounded　on　all　sides　by　the　forces　of　the
  victorious　Renaissance；　with　the　humanists　loudly　proclaiming
  the　coming　of　modern　times；　the　Middle　Ages　gathered
  strength　for　a　last　sally。　Monasteries　were　reformed。　Monks
  gave　up　the　habits　of　riches　and　vice。　Simple；　straightforward
  and　honest　men；　by　the　example　of　their　blameless
  and　devout　lives；　tried　to　bring　the　people　back　to　the　ways　of
  righteousness　and　humble　resignation　to　the　will　of　God。　But
  all　to　no　avail。　The　new　world　rushed　past　these　good　people。
  The　days　of　quiet　meditation　were　gone。　The　great　era　of
  ‘‘expression''　had　begun。
  Here　and　now　let　me　say　that　I　am　sorry　that　I　must　use
  so　many　‘‘big　words。''　I　wish　that　I　could　write　this　history　in
  words　of　one　syllable。　But　it　cannot　be　done。　You　cannot
  write　a　text…book　of　geometry　without　reference　to　a　hypotenuse
  and　triangles　and　a　rectangular　parallelopiped。　You
  simply　have　to　learn　what　those　words　mean　or　do　without
  mathematics。　In　history　（and　in　all　life）　you　will　eventually
  be　obliged　to　learn　the　meaning　of　many　strange　words　of
  Latin　and　Greek　origin。　Why　not　do　it　now？
  When　I　say　that　the　Renaissance　was　an　era　of　expression；
  I　mean　this：　People　were　no　longer　contented　to　be　the
  audience　and　sit　still　while　the　emperor　and　the　pope　told
  them　what　to　do　and　what　to　think。　They　wanted　to　be　actors
  upon　the　stage　of　life。　They　insisted　upon　giving　‘‘expression''
  to　their　own　individual　ideas。　If　a　man　happened　to　be　interested
  in　statesmanship　like　the　Florentine　historian；　Niccolo
  Macchiavelli；　then　he　‘‘expressed''　himself　in　his　books　which
  revealed　his　own　idea　of　a　successful　state　and　an　efficient
  ruler。　If　on　the　other　hand　he　had　a　liking　for　painting；　he
  ‘‘expressed''　his　love　for　beautiful　lines　and　lovely　colours　in
  the　pictures　which　have　made　the　names　of　Giotto；　Fra　Angelico；
  Rafael　and　a　thousand　others　household　words　wherever
  people　have　learned　to　care　for　those　things　which　express
  a　true　and　lasting　beauty。
  If　this　love　for　colour　and　line　happened　to　be　combined　with
  an　interest　in　mechanics　and　hydraulics；　the　result　was　a　Leonardo
  da　Vinci；　who　painted　his　pictures；　experimented　with
  his　balloons　and　flying　machines；　drained　the　marshes　of　the
  Lombardian　plains　and　‘‘expressed''　his　joy　and　interest　in　all
  things　between　Heaven　and　Earth　in　prose；　in　painting；　in
  sculpture　and　in　curiously　conceived　engines。　When　a　man　of
  gigantic　strength；　like　Michael　Angelo；　found　the　brush　and
  the　palette　too　soft　for　his　strong　hands；　he　turned　to　sculpture
  and　to　architecture；　and　hacked　the　most　terrific　creatures　out
  of　heavy　blocks　of　marble　and　drew　the　plans　for　the　church
  of　St。　Peter；　the　most　concrete　‘‘expression''　of　the　glories
  of　the　triumphant　church。　And　so　it　went。
  All　Italy　（and　very　soon　all　of　Europe）　was　filled　with
  men　and　women　who　lived　that　they　might　add　their　mite　to
  the　sum　total　of　our　accumulated　treasures　of　knowledge　and
  beauty　and　wisdom。　In　Germany；　in　the　city　of　Mainz；　Johann
  zum　Gansefleisch；　commonly　known　as　Johann　Gutenberg；　had
  just　invented　a　new　method　of　copying　books。　He　had　studied
  the　old　woodcuts　and　had　perfected　a　system　by　which　individual
  letters　of　soft　lead　could　be　placed　in　such　a　way　that
  they　formed　words　and　whole　pages。　It　is　true；　he　soon　lost
  all　his　money　in　a　law…suit　which　had　to　do　with　the　original
  invention　of　the　press。　He　died　in　poverty；　but　the　‘‘expression''
  of　his　particular　inventive　genius　lived　after　him。
  Soon　Aldus　in　Venice　and　Etienne　in　Paris　and　Plantin　in
  Antwerp　and　Froben　in　Basel　were　flooding　the　world　with
  carefully　edited　editions　of　the　classics　printed　in　the　Gothic
  letters　of　the　Gutenberg　Bible；　or　printed　in　the　Italian　type
  which　we　use　in　this　book；　or　printed　in　Greek　letters；　or　in
  Hebrew。
  Then　the　whole　world　became　the　eager　audience　of　those
  who　had　something　to　say。　The　day　when　learning　had　been
  a　monopoly　of　a　privileged　few　came　to　an　end。　And　the
  last　excuse　for　ignorance　was　removed　from　this　world；　when
  Elzevier　of　Haarlem　began　to　print　his　cheap　and　popular
  editions。　Then　Aristotle　and　Plato；　Virgil　and　Horace　and
  Pliny；　all　the　goodly　company　of　the　ancient　authors　and
  philosophers　and　scientists；　offered　to　become　man's　faithful
  friend　in　exchange　for　a　few　paltry　pennies。　Humanism　had
  made　all　men　free　and　equal　before　the　printed　word。
  THE　GREAT　DISCOVERIES
  BUT　NOW　THAT　PEOPLE　HAD　BROKEN
  THROUGH　THE　BONDS　OF　THEIR　NARROW
  MEDIAEVAL　LIMITATIONS；　THEY　HAD　TO
  HAVE　MORE　ROOM　FOR　THEIR　WANDERINGS。
  THE　EUROPEAN　WORLD　HAD
  GROWN　TOO　SMALL　FOR