nity；　the　original　basis　and　type　of　the　syllogism。　　The　human　　race　can　be　contented　with　neither；　for　neither　allows　it　free　　scope　for　its　inherent　life　and　activity。　　The　English　system　　tends　to　pure　individualism；　402　the　French　to　pure　socialism　or　despotism；　each　endeavoring　to　　suppress　an　element　of　the　one　living　and　indissoluble　TRUTH。
  This　is　not　fancy；　is　not　fine…spun　speculation；　or　cold　and　　lifeless　abstraction；　but　the　highest　theological　and　　philosophical　truth；　without　which　there　were　no　reason；　no　man；　　no　society；　for　God　is　the　first　principle　of　all　being；　all　　existence；　all　science；　all　life；　and　it　is　in　Him　that　we　live　　and　move　and　have　our　being。　　God　is　at　the　beginning；　in　the　　middle；　and　at　the　end　of　all　thingsthe　universal　principle；　　medium；　and　end；　and　no　truth　can　be　denied　without　His　existence　　being　directly　or　indirectly　impugned。　　In　a　deeper　sense　than　is　　commonly　understood　is　it　true　that　nisi　Dominus　aedificaverit　　domum；　in　vanum　laboraverunt　qui　aedificant　eam。　　The　English　　constitution　is　composed　of　contradictory　elements；　incapable　of　　reconciliation；　and　each　element　is　perpetually　struggling　with　　the　others　for　the　mastery。　　For　a　long　time　the　king　labored；　　intrigued；　and　fought　to　free　himself　from　the　thraldom　in　which　　he　was　held　by　the　feudal　barons；　in　1688　the　aristocracy　and　　people　united　and　humbled　the　crown；　and　now　the　people　are　at　　work　seeking　to　sap　both　the　crown　and　the　nobles。　　The　state　is　　consti…　403　　　　　　　tuted　to　nobody's　satisfaction；　and　though　all　may　unite　in　　boasting　its　excellences；　all　are　at　work　trying　to　alter　or　　amend　it。　　The　work　of　constituting　the　state　with　the　English　is　　ever　beginning；　never　ending。　　Hence　the　eternal　clamor　for　　parliamentary　reform。
  Great　Britain　and　other　European　states　may　sweep　away　all　that　　remains　of　feudalism；　include　the　whole　territorial　people　with　　the　equal　rights　of　all　in　the　state　or　political　people；　concede　　to　birth　and　wealth　no　political　rights；　but　they　will　by　so　　doing　only　establish　either　imperial　centralism；　as　has　been　done　　in　France；　or　democratic　centralism；　clamored　for；　conspired　for；　　and　fought　for　by　the　revolutionists　of　Europe。　　The　special　　merit　of　the　American　system　is　not　in　its　democracy　alone；　as　　too　many　at　home　and　abroad　imagine；　but　along　with　its　democracy　　in　the　division　of　the　powers　of　government；　between　a　General　　government　and　particular　State　governments；　which　are　not　　antagonistic　governments；　for　they　act　on　different　matters；　and　　neither　is　nor　can　be　subordinated　to　the　other。
  Now；　this　division　of　power；　which　decentralizes　the　government　　without　creating　mutually　hostile　forces；　can　hardly　be　　introduced　into　any　European　state。　　There　may　be　a　404　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　union　of　　states　in　Great　Britain；　in　Germany；　in　Italy；　perhaps　in　Spain；　　and　Austria　is　laboring　hard　to　effect　it　in　her　heterogeneous　　empire；　but　the　union　possible　in　any　of　them　is　that　of　a　Bund　　or　confederation；　like　the　Swiss　or　German　Bund；　similar　to　what　　the　secessionists　in　the　United　States　so　recently　attempted　and　　have　so　signally　failed　to　establish。　　An　intelligent　Confederate　　officer　remarked　that　their　Confederacy　had　not　been　in　operation　　three　months　before　it　became　evident　that　the　principle　on　　which　it　was　founded；　if　not　rejected；　would　insure　its　defeat。　　　It　was　that　principle　of　State　sovereignty；　for　which　the　States　　seceded；　more　than　the　superior　resources　and　numbers　of　the　　Government；　that　caused　the　collapse　of　the　Confederacy。　　The　　numbers　were　relatively　about　equal；　and　the　military　resources　　of　the　Confederacy　were　relatively　not　much　inferior　to　those　of　　the　Government。　　So　at　least　the　Confederate　leaders　thought；　and　　they　knew　the　material　resources　of　the　Government　as　well　as　　their　own；　and　had　calculated　them　with　as　much　care　and　accuracy　　as　any　men　could。　　Foreign　powers　also；　friendly　as　well　as　　unfriendly；　felt　certain　that　the　secessionists　would　gain　their　　independence；　and　so　did　a　large　part　of　the　people　even　of　the　　loyal　States。　405　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　The　failure　is　due　to　the　disintegrating　principle　　of　State　sovereignty；　the　very　principle　of　the　Confederacy。　　The　　war　has　proved　that　united　states　are；　other　things　being　equal；　　an　overmatch　for　confederated　states。
  The　European　states　must　unite　either　as　equals　or　as　unequals。　　　As　equals；　the　union　can　be　only　a　confederacy；　a　sort　of　　Zollverein；　in　which　each　state　retains　its　individual　　sovereignty；　if　as　unequals；　then　someone　among　them　will　aspire　　to　the　hegemony；　and　you　have　over　again　the　Athenian　　Confederation；　formed　at　the　conclusion　of　the　Persian　war；　and　　its　fate。　　A　union　like　the　American　cannot　be　created　by　a　　compact；　or　by　the　exercise　of　supreme　power。　　The　Emperor　of　the　　French　cannot　erect　the　several　Departments　of　France　into　　states；　and　divide　the　powers　of　government　between　them　as　　individual　and　as　united　states。　　They　would　necessarily　hold　　from　the　imperial　government；　which；　though　it　might　exercise　a　　large　part　of　its　functions　through　them；　would　remain；　as　now；　　the　supreme　central　government；　from　which　all　governmental　　powers　emanate；　as　our　President　is　apparently　attempting；　in　his　　reconstruction　policy；　to　make　the　government　of　the　United　　States。　　The　elements　of　a　state　constituted　like　the　American　406　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　do　　not　exist　in　any　European　nation；　nor　in　the　constitution　of　　European　society；　and　the　American　constitution　would　have　been　　impracticable　even　here　had　not　Providence　so　ordered　it　that　the　　nation　was　born　with　it；　and　has　never　known　any　other。
  Rome　recognized　the　necessity　of　the　federal　principle；　and　　applied　it　in　the　best　way　she　could。　　At　first　it　was　a　single　　tribe　or　people　distributed　into　distinct　gentes　or　houses；　after　　the　Sabine　war；　a　second　tribe　was　added　on　terms　of　equality；　　and　the　state　was　dual；　composed　of　two　tribes；　the　Ramnes　and　　the　Tities　or　Quirites；　and；　afterward；　in　the　time　of　Tullus　　Hostilius；　were　added　the　Lucertes　or　Luceres；　making　the　　division　into　three　ruling　tribes；　each　divided　into　one　hundred　　houses　or　gentes。　　Each　house　in　each　tribe　was　represented　by　　its　chief　or　decurion　in　the　senate；　making　the　number　of　　senators　exactly　three　hundred；　at　which　number　the　senate　was　　fixed。　　Subsequently　was　added；　by　Ancus；　the　plebs；　who　remained　　without　authority　or　share　in　the　government　of　the　city　of　Rome　　itself；　though　they　might　aspire　to　the　first　rank　in　the　allied　　cities。　　The　division　into　tribes；　and　the　division　of　the　tribes　　into　gentes　or　houses；　and　the　vote　in　the　state　by　tribes；　and　　in　the　tribes　by　houses；　ef…　407　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　fectually　excluded　democratic　　centralism；　but　the　division　was　not　a　division　of　the　powers　of　　government　between　two　co…ordinate　governments；　for　the　senate　　had　supreme　control；　like　the　British　parliament；　over　all　　matters；　general　and　particular。
  The　establishment；　after　the　secession　of　the　plebs；　of　the　　tribunitial　veto；　which　gave　the　plebeians　a　negative　power　in　　the　state；　there　was　an　incipient　division　of　the　powers　of　　government；　but　only　a　division　between　the　positive　and　negative　　powers；　not　between　the　general　and　the　particular。　　The　power　　accorded　to　the　plebs；　or　commons；　as　Niebuhr　calls　themwho　is；　　perhaps；　too　fond　of　explaining　the　early　constitution　of　Rome　by　　analogies　borrowed　from　feudalism；　and　especially　from　the　　constitution　of　his　native　Ditmarschwas　simply　an　obstructive　　power；　and　when　it；　by　development；　became　a　positive　power；　it　　absorbed　all　the　powers　of　government；　and　created　the　Empire。
  There　was；　indeed；　a　nearer　approach　to　the　division　of　powers　in　　the　American　system；　between　imperial　Rome　and　her　allied　or　　confederated　municipalities。　　These　municipalities；　modelled　　chiefly　after　that　of　Rome；　were　elective；　and　had　the　management　　of　their　own　local　affairs；　but　their　local　powers　were　not　　co…ordi…　408　　　　　　　　inate　in　their　own　sphere　with　those　exercised　by　the　　Roman　municipality；　but　subordinate　and　dependent。　　The　senate　　had　the　supreme　power　over　them；　and　they　held　their　rights　　subject　to　its　will。　　They　were　formally；　or　virtually；　　subjugated　states；　to　which　the　Roman　senate；　and　afterward　the　　Roman　emperors；　left　the　form　of　the　state　and　the　mere　shadow　of　　freedom。　　Rome　owed　much　to　her　affecting　to　treat　them　as　allies　　rather　than　as　subjects；　and　at　first　these　municipal　　organizations　secured　the　progress　of　civilization　in　the　　provinces；　but　at　a　later　period；　under　the　emperors；　they　served　　only　the　imperial　treasury；　and　were　crushed　by　the　taxes　imposed　　and　the　contributions　levied　on　them　by　the　fiscal　agents　of　the　　empire。　　So　heavy　were　the　fiscal　burdens　imposed　on　the　　burgesses；　if　the　term　may　be　used；　that　it　needed　an　imperial　　edict　to　compel　them　to　enter　the　municipal　government；　and　it　　became；　under　the　later　emperors；　no　uncommon　thing　for　free　　citizens　to　sell　themselves　into　slavery；　to　escape　the　fiscal　　burdens　imposed。　　There　are　actually　imperial　edicts　extant