nclusion。　　To　the　General　government　is　　denied　expressly　or　by　necessary　implication　all　jurisdiction　in　　matters　of　private　rights　and　interests；　and　to　the　State　　government　is　denied　all　jurisdiction　in　right；　or　interests　　which　extend；　as　has　been　said；　beyond　the　boundaries　of　the　　State。　　〃No　State　shall　enter　into　any　treaty；　alliance；　or　　confederation；　grant　letters　of　marque　and　reprisal；　coin　money；　　emit　bills　of　credit；　make　any　thing　but　gold　and　silver　coin　a　　tender　in　the　payment　of　debts；　pass　any　bill　of　attainder；　ex　　post　facto　law；　or　law　impairing　the　obligation　of　contracts；　or　　grant　any　title　of　nobility。　　No　State　shall；　without　the　　consent　of　Congress；　lay　any　imposts　or　duties　on　imports　or　　exports；　except　what　may　be　absolutely　necessary　for　executing　　its　inspection　laws　and　the　net　produce　of　all　duties　and　　imposts　laid　by　any　State　on　imports　and　exports　shall　be　for　the　　use　of　the　treasury　of　the　United　States；　and　all　such　laws　　shall　be　subject　to　the　revision　and　control　of　Congress。　　No　　State　shall；　with…　268　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　out　the　consent　of　Congress；　lay　any　duty　of　　tonnage；　keep　troops　or　ships…of…war　in　time　of　peace；　enter　into　　any　agreement　or　compact　with　another　State　or　with　a　foreign　　power；　or　engage　in　war；　unless　actually　invaded；　or　in　such　　imminent　danger　as　will　not　admit　of　delay。〃
  The　powers　denied　to　the　States　in　some　matters　which　are　rather　　private　and　particular；　such　as　bills　of　attainder；　ex　post　　facto　laws；　laws　impairing　the　obligation　of　contracts；　granting　　titles　of　nobility；　are　denied　equally　to　the　General　government。　　　There　is　evidently　a　profound　logic　in　the　constitution；　and　　there　is　not　a　single　provision　in　it　that　is　arbitrary；　or　　anomalous；　or　that　does　not　harmonize　dialectically　with　the　　whole；　and　with　the　real　constitution　of　the　American　people。　　At　　first　sight　the　reservation　to　the　State　of　the　appointment　of　　the　officers　of　the　militia　might　seem　an　anomaly；　but　as　the　　whole　subject　of　internal　police　belongs　to　the　State；　it　should　　have　some　military　force　at　its　command。　　The　subject　of　　bankruptcies；　also；　might　seem　to　be　more　properly　within　the　　province　of　the　State；　and　so　it　would　be　if　commerce　between　the　　several　States　had　not　been　placed　under　Congress；　or　if　trade　　were　confined　to　the　citizens　269　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　of　the　State　and　within　its　　boundaries；　but　as　such　is　not　the　case；　it　was　necessary　to　　place　it　under　the　General　government；　in　order　that　laws　on　the　　subject　might　be　uniform　throughout　the　Union；　and　that　the　　citizens　of　all　the　States；　and　foreigners　trading　with　them；　　should　be　placed　on　an　equal　footing；　and　have　the　same　remedies。　　　The　subject　follows　naturally　in　the　train　of　commerce；　for　　bankruptcies；　as　understood　at　the　time；　were　confined　to　the　　mercantile　class；　bankers；　and　brokers；　and　since　the　regulation　　of　commerce；　foreign　and　inter…state；　was　to　be　placed　under　the　　sole　charge　of　the　General　government；　it　was　necessary　that　　bankruptcy　should　be　included。　　The　subject　of　patents　is　placed　　under　the　General　government；　though　the　patent　is　a　private　　right；　because　it　was　the　will　of　the　convention　that　the　patent　　should　be　good　in　all　the　States；　as　affording　more　encouragement　　to　science　and　the　useful　arts　than　if　good　only　within　a　single　　State；　or　if　the　power　were　left　to　each　State　to　recognize　or　　not　patents　granted　by　another。　　The　right　created；　though　　private　in　its　nature；　is　Yet　general　or　common　to　all　the　States　　in　its　enjoyment　or　exercise。
  The　division　of　the　powers　of　government　between　a　General　　government　and　particular　270　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　governments；　rendered　possible　and　　practicable　by　the　original　constitution　of　the　people　　themselves；　as　one　people　existing　and　acting　through　State　　organizations；　is　the　American　method　of　guarding　against　the　　undue　centralism　to　which　Roman　imperialism　inevitably　tends；　　and　it　is　far　simpler　and　more　effective　than　any　of　the　　European　systems　of　mixed　governments；　which　seek　their　end　by　　organizing　an　antagonism　of　interests　or　classes。　　The　American　　method　demands　no　such　antagonism；　no　neutralizing　of　one　social　　force　by　another；　but　avails　itself　of　all　the　forces　of　society；　　organizes　them　dialectically；　not　antagonistically；　and　thus　　protects　with；　equal　efficiency　both　public　authority　and　　private　rights。　　The　General　government　can　never　oppress　the　　people　as　individuals；　or　abridge　their　private　rights　or　　personal　freedom　and　independence；　because　these　are　not　within　　its　jurisdiction；　but　are　placed　in　charge；　within　each　State；　　of　the　State　government；　which；　within　its　sphere；　governs　as　　supremely　as　the　General　government：　the　State　governments　　cannot　weaken　the　public　authority　of　the　nation　or　oppress　the　　people　in　their　general　rights　and　interests；　for　these　are　　withdrawn　from　State　jurisdiction；　and　placed　under　charge　of　a　　Gen…　271　eral　government；　which；　in　its　sphere；　governs　as　supremely　as　　the　State　government。　　There　is　no　resort　to　a　system　of　checks　　and　balances；　there　is　no　restraint　on　power；　and　no　systematic　　distrust　of　power；　but　simply　a　division　of　powers　between　two　　co…ordinate　governments；　distinct　but　inseparable；　moving　in　　distinct　spheres；　but　in　the　same　direction；　or　to　a　common　end。　　　The　system　is　no　invention　of　man；　is　no　creation　of　the　　convention；　but　is　given　us　by　Providence　in　the　living　　constitution　of　the　American　people。　　The　merit　of　the　statesmen　　of　1787　is　that　they　did　not　destroy　or　deface　the　work　of　　Providence；　but　accepted　it；　and　organized　the　government　in　　harmony　with　the　real　orders　the　real　elements　given　them。　　They　　suffered　themselves　in　all　their　positive　substantial　work　to　be　　governed　by　reality；　not　by　theories　and　speculations。　　In　this　　they　proved　themselves　statesmen；　and　their　work　survives；　and　　the　republic；　laugh　as　sciolists　may；　is；　for　the　present　and　　future；　the　model　republicas　much　so　as　was　Rome　in　her　day；　　and　it　is　not　simply　national　pride　nor　American　self…conceit　　that　pronounces　its　establishment　the　beginning　of　a　new　and　　more　advanced　order　of　civilization；　such　is　really　the　fact。
  The　only　apparently　weak　point　in　the　sys…　272　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　tem　is　in　the　　particular　States　themselves。　　Feudalism　protected　the　feudal　　aristocracy　effectively　for　a　time　against　both　the　king　and　the　　people；　but　left　the　king　and　the；　people　without　protection　　against　the　aristocracy；　and　hence　it　fell。　　It　was　not　adequate　　to　the　wants　of　civil　society；　did　not　harmonize　all　social　　elements；　and　protect　all　social　and　individual　rights　and　　interests；　and　therefore　could　not　but　fail。　　The　General　　government　takes　care　of　public　authority　and　rights；　the　State　　protects　private　rights　and　personal　freedom　as　against　the　　General　government：　but　what　protects　the　citizens　in　their　　private　rights；　their　personal　freedom　and　independence；　against　　the　particular　State　government？　　Universal　suffrage；　answers　　the　democrat。　　Armed　with　the　ballot；　more　powerful　than　the　　sword；　each　citizen　is　able　to　protect　himself。　　But　this　is　　theory；　not　reality。　　If　it　were　true；　the　division　of　the　　powers　of　government　between　two　co…ordinate；　governments　would　　be　of　no　practical　importance。　　Experience　does　not　sustain　the　　theory；　and　the　power　of　the　ballot　to　protect　the　individual　　may　be　rendered　ineffective　by　the　tyranny　of　party。　　Experience　　proves　that　the　ballot　is　far　less　effective　in　securing　the　　freedom　and　independence　of　the　individual　citizen　than　is　273　commonly　pretended。　　The　ballot　of　an　isolated　individual　counts　　for　nothing。　　The　individual；　though　armed　with　the　ballot；　is　　as　powerless；　if　he　stands　alone；　as　if　he　had　it　not。　　To　　render　it　of　any　avail　he　must　associate　himself　with　a　party；　　and　look　for　his　success　in　the　success　of　his　party；　and　to　　secure　the　success　of　his　party；　he　must　give　up　to　it　his　own　　private　convictions　and　free　will。　　In　practice；　individuals　are　　nothing　individually；　and　parties　are　every　thing。　　Even　the　　suppression　of　the　late　rebellion；　and　the　support　of　the　　Administration　in　doing　it；　was　made　a　party　question；　and　the　　government　found　the　leaders　of　the　party　opposed　to　the　　Republican　party　an　obstacle　hardly　less　difficult　to　surmount　　than　the　chiefs　of　the　armies　of　the　so…called　Confederate　　States。
  Parties　are　formed；　one　hardly　knows　how；　and　controlled；　no　one　　knows　by　whom；　but　usually　by　demagogues；　men　who　have　some　　private　or　personal　purposes；　for　which　they　wish；　through　party　　to　use　the　government。　　Parties　have　no　conscience；　no　　responsibility；　and　their　very　reason　of　being　is；　the　　usurpation　and　concentration　of　power。　　The　real　practical　　tendency　of　universal　suffrage　is　to　democratic；　instead　of　an　　imperial；　centralism。　274　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　What　is　to　guard　against　this　centralism？　　　Not　universal　suffrage；　for　that　tends　to　create　it；；　and　if　the　　government　is　left　to　it；　the　government　becomes　practically　the　　will　of　an　ever　shifting　and　irresponsible　majority。　　Is　the　　remedy　in　written　or　paper　constitutions？　　Party　can　break　　thr