without…a…Cent；　began　their　campaign　against　the　Infidels　by
  murdering　all　the　Jews　whom　they　met　by　the　way。　They
  got　as　far　as　Hungary　and　then　they　were　all　killed。
  This　experience　taught　the　Church　a　lesson。　Enthusiasm
  alone　would　not　set　the　Holy　Land　free。　Organisation　was
  as　necessary　as　good…will　and　courage。　A　year　was　spent　in
  training　and　equipping　an　army　of　200；000　men。　They　were
  placed　under　command　of　Godfrey　of　Bouillon；　Robert；　duke
  of　Normandy；　Robert；　count　of　Flanders；　and　a　number　of
  other　noblemen；　all　experienced　in　the　art　of　war。
  In　the　year　1096　this　second　crusade　started　upon　its　long
  voyage。　At　Constantinople　the　knights　did　homage　to　the
  Emperor。　（For　as　I　have　told　you；　traditions　die　hard；　and
  a　Roman　Emperor；　however　poor　and　powerless；　was　still　held
  in　great　respect）。　Then　they　crossed　into　Asia；　killed　all　the
  Moslems　who　fell　into　their　hands；　stormed　Jerusalem；　massacred
  the　Mohammedan　population；　and　marched　to　the　Holy
  Sepulchre　to　give　praise　and　thanks　amidst　tears　of　piety　and
  gratitude。　But　soon　the　Turks　were　strengthened　by　the　arrival
  of　fresh　troops。　Then　they　retook　Jerusalem　and　in　turn
  killed　the　faithful　followers　of　the　Cross。
  During　the　next　two　centuries；　seven　other　crusades　took
  place。　Gradually　the　Crusaders　learned　the　technique　of　the
  trip。　The　land　voyage　was　too　tedious　and　too　dangerous。
  They　preferred　to　cross　the　Alps　and　go　to　Genoa　or　Venice
  where　they　took　ship　for　the　east。　The　Genoese　and　the　Venetians
  made　this　trans…Mediterranean　passenger　service　a　very
  profitable　business。　They　charged　exorbitant　rates；　and　when
  the　Crusaders　（most　of　whom　had　very　little　money）　could　not
  pay　the　price；　these　Italian　‘‘profiteers''　kindly　allowed　them
  to　‘‘work　their　way　across。''　In　return　for　a　fare　from　Venice
  to　Acre；　the　Crusader　undertook　to　do　a　stated　amount　of
  fighting　for　the　owners　of　his　vessel。　In　this　way　Venice　greatly
  increased　her　territory　along　the　coast　of　the　Adriatic　and　in
  Greece；　where　Athens　became　a　Venetian　colony；　and　in　the
  islands　of　Cyprus　and　Crete　and　Rhodes。
  All　this；　however；　helped　little　in　settling　the　question
  of　the　Holy　Land。　After　the　first　enthusiasm　had
  worn　off；　a　short　crusading　trip　became　part　of　the　liberal
  education　of　every　well…bred　young　man；　and　there
  never　was　any　lack　of　candidates　for　service　in　Palestine。
  But　the　old　zeal　was　gone。　The　Crusaders；　who
  had　begun　their　warfare　with　deep　hatred　for　the
  Mohammedans　and　great　love　for　the　Christian　people
  of　the　eastern　Roman　Empire　and　Armenia；　suffered
  a　complete　change　of　heart。　They　came　to　despise　the
  Greeks　of　Byzantium；　who　cheated　them　and　frequently　betrayed
  the　cause　of　the　Cross；　and　the　Armenians　and　all　the
  other　Levantine　races；　and　they　began　to　appreciate　the　vir…
  tues　of　their　enemies　who　proved　to　be　generous　and　fair
  opponents。
  Of　course；　it　would　never　do　to　say　this　openly。　But　when
  the　Crusader　returned　home；　he　was　likely　to　imitate　the　manners
  which　he　had　learned　from　his　heathenish　foe；　compared
  to　whom　the　average　western　knight　was　still　a　good　deal　of　a
  country　bumpkin。　He　also　brought　with　him　several　new
  food…stuffs；　such　as　peaches　and　spinach　which　he　planted　in　his
  garden　and　grew　for　his　own　benefit。　He　gave　up　the　barbarous
  custom　of　wearing　a　load　of　heavy　armour　and　appeared
  in　the　flowing　robes　of　silk　or　cotton　which　were　the　traditional
  habit　of　the　followers　of　the　Prophet　and　were　originally　worn
  by　the　Turks。　Indeed　the　Crusades；　which　had　begun　as　a
  punitive　expedition　against　the　Heathen；　became　a　course　of
  general　instruction　in　civilisation　for　millions　of　young　Europeans。
  From　a　military　and　political　point　of　view　the　Crusades
  were　a　failure。　Jerusalem　and　a　number　of　cities　were　taken
  and　lost。　A　dozen　little　kingdoms　were　established　in　Syria
  and　Palestine　and　Asia　Minor；　but　they　were　re…conquered　by
  the　Turks　and　after　the　year　1244　（when　Jerusalem　became
  definitely　Turkish）　the　status　of　the　Holy　Land　was　the　same
  as　it　had　been　before　1095。
  But　Europe　had　undergone　a　great　change。　The　people　of
  the　west　had　been　allowed　a　glimpse　of　the　light　and　the　sunshine
  and　the　beauty　of　the　east。　Their　dreary　castles　no
  longer　satisfied　them。　They　wanted　a　broader　life。　Neither
  Church　nor　State　could　give　this　to　them。
  They　found　it　in　the　cities。
  THE　MEDIAEVAL　CITY
  WHY　THE　PEOPLE　OF　THE　MIDDLE　AGES
  SAID　THAT　‘‘CITY　AIR　IS　FREE　AIR''
  THE　early　part　of　the　Middle　Ages　had　been　an　era　of
  pioneering　and　of　settlement。　A　new　people；　who　thus　far
  had　lived　outside　the　wild　range　of　forest；　mountains　and
  marshes　which　protected　the　north…eastern　frontier　of　the　Roman
  Empire；　had　forced　its　way　into　the　plains　of　western
  Europe　and　had　taken　possession　of　most　of　the　land。　They
  were　restless；　as　all　pioneers　have　been　since　the　beginning　of
  time。　They　liked　to　be　‘‘on　the　go。''　They　cut　down　the
  forests　and　they　cut　each　other's　throats　with　equal　energy。
  Few　of　them　wanted　to　live　in　cities。　They　insisted　upon　being
  ‘‘free；''　they　loved　to　feel　the　fresh　air　of　the　hillsides　fill　their
  lungs　while　they　drove　their　herds　across　the　wind…swept　pastures。
  When　they　no　longer　liked　their　old　homes；　they　pulled
  up　stakes　and　went　away　in　search　of　fresh　adventures。
  The　weaker　ones　died。　The　hardy　fighters　and　the　courageous
  women　who　had　followed　their　men　into　the　wilderness
  survived。　In　this　way　they　developed　a　strong　race　of
  men。　They　cared　little　for　the　graces　of　life。　They　were　too
  busy　to　play　the　fiddle　or　write　pieces　of　poetry。　They　had
  little　love　for　discussions。　The　priest；　‘‘the　learned　man''　of　the
  village　（and　before　the　middle　of　the　thirteenth　century；　a　layman
  who　could　read　and　write　was　regarded　as　a　‘‘sissy''）　was
  supposed　to　settle　all　questions　which　had　no　direct　practical
  value。　Meanwhile　the　German　chieftain；　the　Frankish　Baron；
  the　Northman　Duke　（or　whatever　their　names　and　titles）　occupied
  their　share　of　the　territory　which　once　had　been　part　of
  the　great　Roman　Empire　and　among　the　ruins　of　past　glory；
  they　built　a　world　of　their　own　which　pleased　them　mightily
  and　which　they　considered　quite　perfect。
  They　managed　the　affairs　of　their　castle　and　the　surrounding
  country　to　the　best　of　their　ability。　They　were　as　faithful
  to　the　commandments　of　the　Church　as　any　weak　mortal　could
  hope　to　be。　They　were　sufficiently　loyal　to　their　king　or　emperor
  to　keep　on　good　terms　with　those　distant　but　always　dangerous
  potentates。　In　short；　they　tried　to　do　right　and　to　be
  fair　to　their　neighbours　without　being　exactly　unfair　to　their
  own　interests。
  It　was　not　an　ideal　world　in　which　they　found　themselves。
  The　greater　part　of　the　people　were　serfs　or　‘‘villains；''　farm…
  hands　who　were　as　much　a　part　of　the　soil　upon　which　they
  lived　as　the　cows　and　sheep　whose　stables　they　shared。　Their
  fate　was　not　particularly　happy　nor　was　it　particularly
  unhappy。　But　what　was　one　to　do？　The　good　Lord　who　ruled
  the　world　of　the　Middle　Ages　had　undoubtedly　ordered　everything
  for　the　best。　If　He；　in　his　wisdom；　had　decided　that
  there　must　be　both　knights　and　serfs；　it　was　not　the　duty　of
  these　faithful　sons　of　the　church　to　question　the　arrangement。
  The　serfs　therefore　did　not　complain　but　when　they　were　too
  hard　driven；　they　would　die　off　like　cattle　which　are　not　fed
  and　stabled　in　the　right　way；　and　then　something　would　be　hastily
  done　to　better　their　condition。　But　if　the　progress　of　the
  world　had　been　left　to　the　serf　and　his　feudal　master；　we　would
  still　be　living　after　the　fashion　of　the　twelfth　century；　saying
  ‘‘abracadabra''　when　we　tried　to　stop　a　tooth…ache；　and　feeling
  a　deep　contempt　and　hatred　for　the　dentist　who　offered　to　help
  us　with　his　‘‘science；''　which　most　likely　was　of　Mohammedan
  or　heathenish　origin　and　therefore　both　wicked　and　useless。
  When　you　grow　up　you　will　discover　that　many　people　do
  not　believe　in　‘‘progress''　and　they　will　prove　to　you　by　the
  terrible　deeds　of　some　of　our　own　contemporaries　that　‘‘the
  world　does　not　change。''　But　I　hope　that　you　will　not　pay
  much　attention　to　such　talk。　You　see；　it　took　our　ancestors
  almost　a　million　years　to　learn　how　to　walk　on　their　hind　legs。
  Other　centuries　had　to　go　by　before　their　animal…like　grunts
  developed　into　an　understandable　language。　Writingthe　art
  of　preserving　our　ideas　for　the　benefit　of　future　generations；
  without　which　no　progress　is　possible　was　invented　only　four
  thousand　years　ago。　The　idea　of　turning　the　forces　of　nature
  into　the　obedient　servants　of　man　was　quite　new　in　the　days　of
  your　own　grandfather。　It　seems　to　me；　therefore；　that　we　are
  making　progress　at　an　unheard…of　rate　of　speed。　Perhaps　we
  have　paid　a　little　too　much　attention　to　the　mere　physical　comforts
  of　life。　That　will　change　in　due　course　of　time　and　we
  shall　then　attac