farmers。　Eventually　it　made　the　greater　part　of　the　Roman
  citizens　into　professional　beggars。
  He　established　colonies　of　destitute　people　in　distant　parts
  of　the　empire；　but　these　settlements　failed　to　attract　the　right
  sort　of　people。　Before　Gaius　Gracchus　could　do　more　harm　he
  too　was　murdered　and　his　followers　were　either　killed　or　exiled。
  The　first　two　reformers　had　been　gentlemen。　The　two　who
  came　after　were　of　a　very　different　stamp。　They　were
  professional　soldiers。　One　was　called　Marius。　The　name　of　the
  other　was　Sulla。　Both　enjoyed　a　large　personal　following。
  Sulla　was　the　leader　of　the　landowners。　Marius；　the　victor
  in　a　great　battle　at　the　foot　of　the　Alps　when　the　Teutons
  and　the　Cimbri　had　been　annihilated；　was　the　popular　hero
  of　the　disinherited　freemen。
  Now　it　happened　in　the　year　88　B。C。　that　the　Senate　of
  Rome　was　greatly　disturbed　by　rumours　that　came　from　Asia。
  Mithridates；　king　of　a　country　along　the　shores　of　the　Black
  Sea；　and　a　Greek　on　his　mother's　side；　had　seen　the　possibility
  of　establishing　a　second　Alexandrian　Empire。　He　began　his
  campaign　for　world…domination　with　the　murder　of　all　Roman
  citizens　who　happened　to　be　in　Asia　Minor；　men；　women　and
  children。　Such　an　act；　of　course；　meant　war。　The　Senate
  equipped　an　army　to　march　against　the　King　of　Pontus　and
  punish　him　for　his　crime。　But　who　was　to　be　commander…in…
  chief？　‘‘Sulla；''　said　the　Senate；　‘‘because　he　is　Consul。''
  ‘‘Marius；''　said　the　mob；　‘‘because　he　has　been　Consul　five　times
  and　because　he　is　the　champion　of　our　rights。''
  Possession　is　nine　points　of　the　law。　Sulla　happened　to　be
  in　actual　command　of　the　army。　He　went　west　to　defeat
  Mithridates　and　Marius　fled　to　Africa。　There　he　waited
  until　he　heard　that　Sulla　had　crossed　into　Asia。　He　then
  returned　to　Italy；　gathered　a　motley　crew　of　malcontents；
  marched　on　Rome　and　entered　the　city　with　his　professional
  highwaymen；　spent　five　days　and　five　nights；　slaughtering　the
  enemies　of　the　Senatorial　party；　got　himself　elected　Consul　and
  promptly　died　from　the　excitement　of　the　last　fortnight。
  There　followed　four　years　of　disorder。　Then　Sulla；　having
  defeated　Mithridates；　announced　that　he　was　ready　to　return
  to　Rome　and　settle　a　few　old　scores　of　his　own。　He　was　as
  good　as　his　word。　For　weeks　his　soldiers　were　busy　executing
  those　of　their　fellow　citizens　who　were　suspected　of　democratic
  sympathies。　One　day　they　got　hold　of　a　young　fellow　who
  had　been　often　seen　in　the　company　of　Marius。　They　were
  going　to　hang　him　when　some　one　interfered。　‘‘The　boy　is　too
  young；''　he　said；　and　they　let　him　go。　His　name　was　Julius
  Caesar。　You　shall　meet　him　again　on　the　next　page。
  As　for　Sulla；　he　became　‘‘Dictator；''　which　meant　sole　and
  supreme　ruler　of　all　the　Roman　possessions。　He　ruled　Rome
  for　four　years；　and　he　died　quietly　in　his　bed；　having　spent　the
  last　year　of　his　life　tenderly　raising　his　cabbages；　as　was　the
  custom　of　so　many　Romans　who　had　spent　a　lifetime　killing
  their　fellow…men。
  But　conditions　did　not　grow　better。　On　the　contrary；　they
  grew　worse。　Another　general；　Gnaeus　Pompeius；　or　Pompey；
  a　close　friend　of　Sulla；　went　east　to　renew　the　war　against　the
  ever　troublesome　Mithridates。　He　drove　that　energetic　potentate
  into　the　mountains　where　Mithridates　took　poison　and
  killed　himself；　well　knowing　what　fate　awaited　him　as　a　Roman
  captive。　Next　he　re…established　the　authority　of　Rome　over
  Syria；　destroyed　Jerusalem；　roamed　through　western　Asia；
  trying　to　revive　the　myth　of　Alexander　the　Great；　and　at　last
  （in　the　year　62）　returned　to　Rome　with　a　dozen　ship…loads　of
  defeated　Kings　and　Princes　and　Generals；　all　of　whom　were
  forced　to　march　in　the　triumphal　procession　of　this　enormously
  popular　Roman　who　presented　his　city　with　the　sum　of　forty
  million　dollars　in　plunder。
  It　was　necessary　that　the　government　of　Rome　be　placed
  in　the　hands　of　a　strong　man。　Only　a　few　months　before；　the
  town　had　almost　fallen　into　the　hands　of　a　good…for…nothing
  young　aristocrat　by　the　name　of　Catiline；　who　had　gambled
  away　his　money　and　hoped　to　reimburse　himself　for　his　losses　by
  a　little　plundering。　Cicero；　a　public…spirited　lawyer；　had　discovered
  the　plot；　had　warned　the　Senate；　and　had　forced　Catiline
  to　flee。　But　there　were　other　young　men　with　similar　ambitions
  and　it　was　no　time　for　idle　talk。
  Pompey　organised　a　triumvirate　which　was　to　take　charge
  of　affairs。　He　became　the　leader　of　this　Vigilante　Committee。
  Gaius　Julius　Caesar；　who　had　made　a　reputation　for　himself
  as　governor　of　Spain；　was　the　second　in　command。　The
  third　was　an　indifferent　sort　of　person　by　the　name　of　Crassus。
  He　had　been　elected　because　he　was　incredibly　rich；　having　been
  a　successful　contractor　of　war　supplies。　He　soon　went　upon
  an　expedition　against　the　Parthians　and　was　killed。
  As　for　Caesar；　who　was　by　far　the　ablest　of　the　three；　he
  decided　that　he　needed　a　little　more　military　glory　to　become
  a　popular　hero。　He　crossed　the　Alps　and　conquered　that　part
  of　the　world　which　is　now　called　France。　Then　he　hammered
  a　solid　wooden　bridge　across　the　Rhine　and　invaded　the　land
  of　the　wild　Teutons。　Finally　he　took　ship　and　visited　England。
  Heaven　knows　where　he　might　have　ended　if　he　had　not　been
  forced　to　return　to　Italy。　Pompey；　so　he　was　informed；　had
  been　appointed　dictator　for　life。　This　of　course　meant　that
  Caesar　was　to　be　placed　on　the　list　of　the　‘‘retired　officers；''　and
  the　idea　did　not　appeal　to　him。　He　remembered　that　he　had
  begun　life　as　a　follower　of　Marius。　He　decided　to　teach　the
  Senators　and　their　‘‘dictator''　another　lesson。　He　crossed　the
  Rubicon　River　which　separated　the　province　of　Cis…alpine　Gaul
  from　Italy。　Everywhere　he　was　received　as　the　‘‘friend　of　the
  people。''　Without　difficulty　Caesar　entered　Rome　and　Pompey
  fled　to　Greece　Caesar　followed　him　and　defeated　his　followers
  near　Pharsalus。　Pompey　sailed　across　the　Mediterranean　and
  escaped　to　Egypt。　When　he　landed　he　was　murdered　by　order
  of　young　king　Ptolemy。　A　few　days　later　Caesar　arrived。
  He　found　himself　caught　in　a　trap。　Both　the　Egyptians　and
  the　Roman　garrison　which　had　remained　faithful　to　Pompey；
  attacked　his　camp。
  Fortune　was　with　Caesar。　He　succeeded　in　setting　fire　to
  the　Egyptian　fleet。　Incidentally　the　sparks　of　the　burning
  vessels　fell　on　the　roof　of　the　famous　library　of　Alexandria
  （which　was　just　off　the　water　front；）　and　destroyed　it。　Next
  he　attacked　the　Egyptian　army；　drove　the　soldiers　into　the
  Nile；　drowned　Ptolemy；　and　established　a　new　government
  under　Cleopatra；　the　sister　of　the　late　king。　Just　then　word
  reached　him　that　Pharnaces；　the　son　and　heir　of　Mithridates；
  had　gone　on　the　war…path。　Caesar　marched　northward；　defeated
  Pharnaces　in　a　war　which　lasted　five　days；　sent　word　of
  his　victory　to　Rome　in　the　famous　sentence　‘‘veni；　vidi；　vici；''
  which　is　Latin　for　‘‘I　came；　I　saw；　I　conquered；''　and　returned
  to　Egypt　where　he　fell　desperately　in　love　with　Cleopatra；　who
  followed　him　to　Rome　when　he　returned　to　take　charge　of　the
  government；　in　the　year　46。　He　marched　at　the　head　of　not
  less　than　four　different　victory…parades；　having　won　four
  different　campaigns。
  Then　Caesar　appeared　in　the　Senate　to　report　upon　his
  adventures；　and　the　grateful　Senate　made　him　‘‘dictator''　for
  ten　years。　It　was　a　fatal　step。
  The　new　dictator　made　serious　attempts　to　reform　the
  Roman　state。　He　made　it　possible　for　freemen　to　become
  members　of　the　Senate。　He　conferred　the　rights　of　citizenship
  upon　distant　communities　as　had　been　done　in　the　early　days
  of　Roman　history。　He　permitted　‘‘foreigners''　to　exercise
  influence　upon　the　government。　He　reformed　the　administration
  of　the　distant　provinces　which　certain　aristocratic　families
  had　come　to　regard　as　their　private　possessions。　In　short　he
  did　many　things　for　the　good　of　the　majority　of　the　people　but
  which　made　him　thoroughly　unpopular　with　the　most　powerful
  men　in　the　state。　Half　a　hundred　young　aristocrats　formed　a
  plot　‘‘to　save　the　Republic。''　On　the　Ides　of　March　（the　fifteenth
  of　March　according　to　that　new　calendar　which　Caesar
  had　brought　with　him　from　Egypt）　Caesar　was　murdered　when
  he　entered　the　Senate。　Once　more　Rome　was　without　a　master。
  There　were　two　men　who　tried　to　continue　the　tradition　of
  Caesar's　glory。　One　was　Antony；　his　former　secretary。　The
  other　was　Octavian；　Caesar's　grand…nephew　and　heir　to　his
  estate。　Octavian　remained　in　Rome；　but　Antony　went　to　Egypt
  to　be　near　Cleopatra　with　whom　he　too　had　fallen　in　love；　as
  seems　to　have　been　the　habit　of　Roman　generals。
  A　war　broke　out　between　the　two。　In　the　battle　of　Actium；
  Octavian　defeated　Antony。　Antony　killed　himself　and
  Cleopatra　was　left　alone　to　face　the　enemy。　She　tried　very
  hard　to　make　Octavian　her　third　Roman　conquest。　When　she
  saw　that　she　could　make　no　impression　upon　this　very　proud
  aristocrat；　she　killed　herself；　and　Egypt