nd　was　on　the　point　of　starting　on　his　journey；　　he　was　arrested　by　the　Florentine　government　and　only　released　on　　payment　of　bail　to　the　amount　of　18；000　gold　florins。　The　high　　estimation　in　which　these　branches　of　science　were　held　makes　it　　intelligible　why　distinguished　philologists　turned　their　attention　to　　law　and　medicine；　while　on　the　other　hand　specialists　were　more　and　　more　compelled　to　acquire　something　of　a　wide　literary　culture。　We　　shall　presently　have　occasion　to　speak　of　the　work　of　the　humanists　in　　other　departments　of　practical　life。
  Nevertheless；　the　position　of　the　philologists；　as　such；　even　where　the　　salary　was　large；　and　did　not　exclude　other　sources　of　income；　was　on　　the　whole　uncertain　and　temporary；　so　that　one　and　the　same　teacher　　could　be　connected　with　a　great　variety　of　institutions。　It　is　evident　　that　change　was　desired　for　its　own　sake；　and　something　fresh　expected　　from　each　newcomer；　as　was　natural　at　a　time　when　science　was　in　the　　making；　and　consequently　depended　to　no　small　degree　on　the　personal　　influence　of　the　teacher。　Nor　was　it　always　the　case　that　a　lecturer　on　　classical　authors　really　belonged　to　the　university　of　the　town　where　　he　taught。　Communication　was　so　easy；　and　the　supply　of　suitable　　accommodation；　in　monasteries　and　elsewhere；　was　so　abundant；　that　a　　private　appointment　was　often　practicable。　In　the　first　decades　of　the　　fifteenth　century；　when　the　University　of　Florence　was　at　its　greatest　　brilliance；　when　the　courtiers　of　Eugenius　IV；　and　perhaps　even　of　　Martin　V　thronged　the　lecture…room；　when　Carlo　Aretino　and　Filelfo　were　　competing　for　the　largest　audience；　there　existed；　not　only　an　almost　　complete　university　among　the　Augustinians　of　Santo　Spirito；　not　only　　an　association　of　scholars　among　the　Camaldolesi　of　the　Angeli；　but　　individuals　of　mark；　either　singly　or　in　common；　arranged　to　provide　　philosophical　and　philological　teaching　for　themselves　and　others。　　Linguistic　and　antiquarian　studies　in　Rome　had　next　to　no　connection　　with　the　university　（Sapienza）；　and　depended　almost　exclusively　either　　on　the　favour　of　individual　popes　and　prelates；　or　on　the　appointments　　made　in　the　Papal　chancery。　It　was　not　till　Leo　X　（1513）　that　the　great　　reorganization　of　the　Sapienza　took　place；　which　now　had　eighty…eight　　lecturers；　among　whom　there　were　the　most　able　men　of　Italy；　reading　　and　interpreting　the　class；cs。　But　this　new　brilliancy　was　of　short　　duration。　We　have　already　spoken　briefly　of　the　Greek　professorships　in　　Italy。
  To　form　an　accurate　picture　of　the　method　of　scientific　instruction　　then　pursued；　we　must　turn　away　our　eyes　as　far　as　possible　from　our　　present　academic　system。　Personal　intercourse　between　the　teachers　and　　the　taught；　public　disputations；　the　constant　use　of　Latin　and　often　of　　Greek；　the　frequent　changes　of　lecturers　and　the　scarcity　of　books；　　gave　the　studies　of　that　time　a　color　which　we　cannot　represent　to　　ourselves　without　effort。
  There　were　Latin　schools　in　every　town　of　the　least　importance；　not　by　　any　means　merely　as　preparatory　to　higher　education；　but　because；　next　　to　reading；　writing；　and　arithmetic；　the　knowledge　of　Latin　was　a　　necessity；　and　after　Latin　came　logic。　It　is　to　be　noted　particularly　　that　these　schools　did　not　depend　on　the　Church；　but　on　the　　municipality；　some　of　them；　too；　were　merely　private　enterprises。
  This　school　system；　directed　by　a　few　distinguished　humanists；　not　only　　attained　a　remarkable　perfection　of　organization；　but　became　an　　instrument　of　higher　education　in　the　modern　sense　of　the　phrase。　With　　the　education　of　the　children　of　two　princely　houses　in　North　Italy　　institutions　were　connected　which　may　be　called　unique　of　their　kind。
  At　the　court　of　Giovan　Francesco　Gonzaga　at　Mantua　（1407…1444）　appeared　　the　illustrious　Vittorino　da　Feltre；　one　of　those　men　who　devote　their　　whole　life　to　an　object　for　which　their　natural　gifts　constitute　a　　special　vocation。
  He　directed　the　education　of　the　sons　and　daughters　of　the　princely　　house；　and　one　of　the　latter　became　under　his　care　a　woman　of　learning。　　When　his　reputation　extended　far　and　wide　over　Italy；　and　members　of　　great　and　wealthy　families　came　from　long　distances；　even　from　Germany；　　in　search　of　his　instructions；　Gonzaga　was　not　only　willing　that　they　　should　be　received；　but　seems　to　have　held　it　an　honour　for　Mantua　to　　be　the　chosen　school　of　the　aristocratic　world。　Here　for　the　first　time　　gymnastics　and　all　noble　bodily　exercises　were　treated　along　with　　scientific　instruction　as　indispensable　to　a　liberal　education。　Besides　　these　pupils　came　others；　whose　instruction　Vittorino　probably　held　to　　be　his　highest　earthly　aim；　the　gifted　poor；　whom　he　supported　in　his　　house　and　educated；　'per　l'amore　di　Dio；'　along　with　the　highborn　　youths　who　here　learned　to　live　under　the　same　roof　with　untitled　　genius。　Gonzaga　paid　him　a　yearly　salary　of　300　gold　florins；　and　　contributed　to　the　expenses　caused　by　the　poorer　pupils。　He　knew　that　　Vittorino　never　saved　a　penny　for　himself；　and　doubtless　realized　that　　the　education　of　the　poor　was　the　unexpressed　condition　of　his　　presence。　The　establishment　was　conducted　on　strictly　religious　lines；　　stricter　indeed　than　many　monasteries。
  More　stress　was　laid　on　pure　scholarship　by　Guarino　of　Verona　（1370…　1460）；　who　in　the　year　1429　was　called　to　Ferrara　by　Niccolo　d'Este　to　　educate　his　son　Lionello；　and　who；　when　his　pupil　was　nearly　grown　up　　in　1436；　began　to　teach　at　the　university　of　eloquence　and　of　the　　ancient　languages。　While　still　acting　as　tutor　to　Lionello；　he　had　many　　other　pupils　from　various　parts　of　the　country；　and　in　his　own　house　a　　select　class　of　poor　scholars；　whom　he　partly　or　wholly　supported。　His　　evening　hours　till　far　into　the　night　were　devoted　to　hearing　lessons　　or　to　instructive　conversation。　His　house；　too；　was　the　home　of　a　　strict　religion　and　morality。　It　signified　little　to　him　or　to　　Vittorino　that　most　of　the　humanists　of　their　day　deserved　small　praise　　in　the　matter　of　morals　or　religion。　It　is　inconceivable　how　Guarino；　　with　all　the　daily　work　which　fell　upon　him；　still　found　time　to　write　　translations　from　the　Greek　and　voluminous　original　works。
  Not　only　in　these　two　courts；　but　generally　throughout　Italy；　the　　education　of　the　princely　families　was　in　part　and　for　certain　years　in　　the　hands　of　the　humanists；　who　thereby　mounted　a　step　higher　in　the　　aristocratic　world。　The　writing　of　treatises　on　the　education　of　　princes；　formerly　the　business　of　theologians；　fell　now　within　their　　province。
  From　the　time　of　Pier　Paolo　Vergerio　the　Italian　princes　were　well　　taken　care　of　in　this　respect；　and　the　custom　was　transplanted　into　　Germany　by　Aeneas　Sylvius；　who　addressed　detailed　exhortations　to　two　　young　German　princes　of　the　House　of　Habsburg　on　the　subject　of　their　　further　education；　in　which　they　are　both　urged；　as　might　be　expected；　　to　cultivate　and　nurture　humanism。　Perhaps　Aeneas　was　aware　that　in　　addressing　these　youths　he　was　talking　in　the　air；　and　therefore　took　　measures　to　put　his　treatise　into　public　circulation。　But　the　relations　　of　the　humanists　to　the　rulers　will　be　discussed　separately。　We　have　　here　first　to　speak　of　those　citizens；　mostly　Florentines；　who　made　　antiquarian　interests　one　of　the　chief　objects　of　their　lives；　and　who　　were　themselves　either　distinguished　scholars；　or　else　distinguished　　_dilettanti　_who　maintained　the　scholars。　They　were　of　peculiar　　significance　during　the　period　of　transition　at　the　beginning　of　the　　fifteenth　century；　since　it　was　in　them　that　humanism　first　showed　　itself　practically　as　an　indispensable　element　in　daily　life。　It　was　　not　till　after　this　time　that　the　popes　and　princes　began　seriously　to　　occupy　themselves　with　it。
  Niccolo　Niccoli　and　Giannozzo　Manetti　have　been　already　spoken　of　more　　than　once。　Niccoli　is　described　to　us　by　Vespasiano　as　a　man　who　would　　tolerate　nothing　around　him　out　of　harmony　with　his　own　classical　　spirit。　His　handsome　long…robed　figure；　his　kindly　speech；　his　house　　adorned　with　the　noblest　remains　of　antiquity；　made　a　singular　　impression。　He　was　scrupulously　cleanly　in　everything；　most　of　all　at　　table；　where　ancient　vases　and　crystal　goblets　stood　before　him　on　the　　whitest　linen。　The　way　in　which　he　won　over　a　pleasure…loving　young　　Florentine　to　intellectual　interests　is　too　charming　not　to　be　here　　described。　Piero　de'　Pazzi；　son　of　a　distinguished　merchant；　and　　himself　destined　to　the　same　calling；　fair　to　behold；　and　much　given　to　　the　pleasures　of　the　world；　thought　about　anything　rather　than　　literature。　One　day；　as　he　was　passing　the　Palazzo　del　Podesta；　Niccolo　　called　the　young　man　to　him；　and　although　they　had　never　before　　exchanged　a　word；　the　youth　obeyed　the　call　of　one　so　respected。　　Niccolo　asked　him　who　his　father　was。　He　answered；　'Messer　Andrea　de'　　Pazzi。'　When　he　was　further　asked　what　his　pursuit　was；　Piero　replied；　　as　young　people　are　wont　to　do；　'I　enjoy　myself'　（'attendo　a　darmi　buon　　tempo'）。　Niccolo　said　to　him；　'As　son　of　such　a　father；　and　so　fair　to　　look　upon；　it　is　a　shame　that　thou　knowest　nothing　of　the　Latin　　language；　which　would　be　so　great　an　ornament　to　thee。　If　thou　le