er　a　Christian　and　a　pagan　illustration　of　the　　same　fact。　It　must　be　remembered　that　the　Christian　cycle　of　history　　and　legend　was　familiar；　while　the　ancient　was　relatively　unknown；　was　　full　of　promise　and　of　interest；　and　must　necessarily　have　gained　the　　upper　hand　in　the　competition　for　public　sympathy　when　there　was　no　　longer　a　Dante　to　hold　the　balance　between　the　two。
  Petrarch；　who　lives　in　the　memory　of　most　people　nowadays　chiefly　as　a　　great　Italian　poet；　owed　his　fame　among　his　contemporaries　far　rather　　to　the　fact　that　he　was　a　kind　of　living　representative　of　antiquity；　　that　he　imitated　all　styles　of　Latin　poetry；　endeavored　by　his　　voluminous　historical　and　philosophical　writings　not　to　supplant　but　to　　make　known　the　works　of　the　ancients；　and　wrote　letters　that；　as　　treatises　on　matters　of　antiquarian　interest；　obtained　a　reputation　　which　to　us　is　unintelligible；　but　which　was　natural　enough　in　an　age　　without　handbooks。
  It　was　the　same　with　Boccaccio。　For　two　centuries；　when　but　little　was　　known　of　the　'Decameron'　north　of　the　Alps；　he　was　famous　all　over　　Europe　simply　on　account　of　his　Latin　compilations　on　mythology；　　geography　and　biography。　One　of　these；　'De　Genealogia　Deorum；'　contains　　in　the　fourteenth　and　fifteenth　books　a　remarkable　appendix；　in　which　　he　discusses　the　position　of　the　then　youthful　humanism　with　regard　to　　the　age。　We　must　not　be　misled　by　his　exclusive　references　to　'poesie；'　　as　closer　observation　shows　that　he　means　thereby　the　whole　mental　　activity　of　the　poet…scholars。　This　it　is　whose　enemies　he　so　　vigorously　combatsthe　frivolous　ignoramuses　who　have　no　soul　for　　anything　but　debauchery；　the　sophistical　theologian；　to　whom　Helicon；　　the　Castalian　fountain；　and　the　grove　of　Apollo　were　foolishness；　the　　greedy　lawyers；　to　whom　poetry　was　a　superfluity；　since　no　money　was　to　　be　made　by　it；　finally　the　mendicant　friars；　described　　periphrastically；　but　clearly　enough；　who　made　free　with　their　charges　　of　paganism　and　immorality。　Then　follows　the　defence　of　poetry；　the　　praise　of　it；　and　especially　of　the　deeper　and　allegorical　meanings　　which　we　must　always　attribute　to　it；　and　of　that　calculated　obscurity　　which　is　intended　to　repel　the　dull　minds　of　the　ignorant。
  And　finally；　with　a　clear　reference　to　his　own　scholarly　work；　the　　writer　justifies　the　new　relation　in　which　his　age　stood　to　paganism。　　The　case　was　wholly　different；　he　pleads；　when　the　Early　Church　had　to　　fight　its　way　among　the　heathen。　Nowpraised　be　Jesus　Christ　！true　　religion　was　strengthened；　paganism　destroyed；　and　the　victorious　　Church　in　possession　of　the　hostile　camp。　It　was　now　possible　to　touch　　and　study　paganism　almost　_（fere）　_without　danger。　This　is　the　argument　　invariably　used　in　later　times　to　defend　the　Renaissance。
  There　was　thus　a　new　cause　in　the　world　and　a　new　class　of　men　to　　maintain　it。　It　is　idle　to　ask　if　this　cause　ought　not　to　have　stopped　　short　in　its　career　of　victory；　to　have　restrained　itself　deliberately；　　and　conceded　the　first　place　to　purely　national　elements　of　culture。　No　　conviction　was　more　firmly　rooted　in　the　popular　mind　than　that　　antiquity　was　the　highest　title　to　glory　which　Italy　possessed。
  There　was　a　symbolical　ceremony　peculiar　to　the　first　generation　of　　poet…scholars　which　lasted　on　into　the　fifteenth　and　sixteenth　　centuries；　though　losing　the　higher　sentiment　which　inspired　itthe　　coronation　of　the　poets　with　the　laurel　wreath。　The　origin　of　this　　custom　in　the　Middle　Ages　is　obscure；　and　the　ritual　of　the　ceremony　　never　became　fixed。　It　was　a　public　demonstration；　an　outward　and　　visible　expression　of　literary　enthusiasm；　and　naturally　its　form　was　　variable。　Dante；　for　instance；　seems　to　have　understood　it　in　the　sense　　of　a　halfreligious　consecration；　he　desired　to　assume　the　wreath　in　the　　baptistery　of　San　Giovanni；　where；　like　thousands　of　other　Florentine　　children；　he　had　received　baptism。　He　could；　says　his　biographer；　have　　anywhere　received　the　crown　in　virtue　of　his　fame；　but　desired　it　　nowhere　but　in　his　native　city；　and　therefore　died　uncrowned。　From　the　　same　source　we　learn　that　the　usage　was　till　then　uncommon；　and　was　　held　to　be　inherited　by　the　ancient　Romans　from　the　Greeks。　The　most　　recent　source　to　which　the　practices　could　be　referred　is　to　be　found　　in　the　Capitoline　contests　of　musicians；　poets；　and　other　artists；　　founded　by　Domitian　in　imitation　of　the　Greeks　and　celebrated　every　　five　years；　which　may　possibly　have　survived　for　a　time　the　fall　of　the　　Roman　Empire；　but　as　few　other　men　would　venture　to　crown　themselves；　　as　Dante　desired　to　do；　the　question　arises；　to　whom　did　this　office　　belong？　Albertino　Mussato　was　crowned　at　Padua　in　1310　by　the　bishop　　and　the　rector　of　the　University。　The　University　of　Paris；　the　rector　　of　which　was　then　a　Florentine　（1341）；　and　the　municipal　authorities　of　　Rome；　competed　for　the　honour　of　crowning　Petrarch。　His　self…elected　　examiner；　King　Robert　of　Anjou；　would　have　liked　to　perform　the　　ceremony　at　Naples；　but　Petrarch　preferred　to　be　crowned　on　the　Capitol　　by　the　senator　of　Rome。　This　honour　was　long　the　highest　object　of　　ambition；　and　so　it　seemed　to　Jacobus　Pizinga；　an　illustrious　Sicilian　　magistrate。　Then　came　the　Italian　journey　of　Charles　IV；　whom　it　amused　　to　flatter　the　vanity　of　ambitious　men；　and　impress　the　ignorant　　multitude　by　means　of　gorgeous　ceremonies。　Start…　ing　from　the　fiction　　that　the　coronation　of　poets　was　a　prerogative　of　the　old　Roman　　emperors；　and　consequently　was　no　less　his　own；　he　crowned　（May　15；　　1355）　the　Florentine　scholar；　Zanobi　della　Strada；　at　Pisa；　to　the　　great　disgust　of　Boccaccio；　who　declined　to　recognize　this　'laurea　　Pisana'　as　legitimate。　Indeed；　it　might　be　fairly　asked　with　what　right　　this　stranger；　half　Slavonic　by　birth；　came　to　sit　in　judgement　on　the　　merits　of　Italian　poets。　But　from　henceforth　the　emperors　crowned　poets　　wherever　they　went　on　their　travels；　and　in　the　fifteenth　century　the　　popes　and　other　princes　assumed　the　same　right；　till　at　last　no　regard　　whatever　was　paid　to　place　or　circumstances。　In　Rome；　under　Sixtus　IV；　　the　academy　of　Pomponius　L'tus　gave　the　wreath　on　its　own　authority。　　The　Florentines　had　the　good　taste　not　to　crown　their　famous　humanists　　till　after　death。　Carlo　Aretino　and　Leonardo　Aretino　were　thus　crowned；　　the　eulogy　of　the　first　was　pronounced　by　Matteo　Palmieri；　of　the　　latter　by　Giannozzo　Manetti；　before　the　members　of　the　council　and　the　　whole　people；　the　orator　standing　at　the　head　of　the　bier；　on　which　the　　corpse　lay　clad　in　a　silken　robe。　Carlo　Aretino　was　further　honoured　by　　a　tomb　in　Santa　Croce；　which　is　among　the　most　beautiful　in　the　whole　　course　of　the　Renaissance。
  Universities　and　Schools
  The　influence　of　antiquity　on　culture；　of　which　we　have　now　to　speak；　　presupposes　that　the　new　learning　had　gained　possession　of　the　　universities。　This　was　so；　but　by　no　means　to　the　extent　and　with　the　　results　which　might　have　been　expected。
  Few　of　the　Italian　universities　show　themselves　in　their　full　vigor　　till　the　thirteenth　and　fourteenth　centuries；　when　the　increase　of　　wealth　rendered　a　more　systematic　care　for　education　possible。　At　first　　there　were　generally　three　sorts　of　professorshipsone　for　civil　law；　　another　for　canonical　law；　the　third　for　medicine；　in　course　of　time　　professorships　of　rhetoric；　of　philosophy；　and　of　astronomy　were　added；　　the　last　commonly；　though　not　always；　identical　with　astrology。　The　　salaries　varied　greatly　in　different　cases。　Sometimes　a　capital　sum　was　　paid　down。　With　the　spread　of　culture；　competition　became　so　active　　that　the　different　universities　tried　to　entice　away　distinguished　　teachers　from　one　another；　under　which　circumstances　Bologna　is　said　to　　have　sometimes　devoted　the　half　of　its　public　income　（20；000　ducats）　to　　the　university。　The　appointments　were　as　a　rule　made　only　for　a　certain　　time；　sometimes　for　only　half　a　year；　so　that　the　teachers　were　forced　　to　lead　a　wandering　life；　like　actors。　Appointments　for　life　were；　　however；　not　unknown。　Sometimes　the　promise　was　exacted　not　to　teach　　elsewhere　what　had　already　been　taught　at　one　place。　There　were　also　　voluntary；　unpaid　professors。
  Of　the　chairs　which　have　been　mentioned；　that　of　rhetoric　was　　especially　sought　by　the　humanist；　yet　it　depended　only　on　his　　familiarity　with　the　matter　of　ancient　learning　whether　or　no　be　could　　aspire　to　those　of　law；　medicine；　philosophy；　or　astronomy。　The　inward　　conditions　of　the　science　of　the　day　were　as　variable　as　the　outward　　conditions　of　the　teacher。　Certain　jurists　and　physicians　received　by　　far　the　largest　salaries　of　all；　the　former　chiefly　as　consulting　　lawyers　for　the　suits　and　claims　of　the　State　which　employed　them。　In　　Padua　a　lawyer　of　the　fifteenth　century　received　a　salary　of　1；000　　ducats；　and　it　was　proposed　to　appoint　a　celebrated　physician　with　a　　yearly　payment　of　2；000　ducats；　and　the　right　of　private　practice；　the　　same　man　having　previously　received　700　gold　florins　at　Pisa。　When　the　　jurist　Bartolommeo　Socini；　professor　at　Pisa；　accepted　a　Venetian　　appointment　at　Padua；　and　was　on　the　point　of　starting　on　his　journey；　　he　was　arrested　by　the　Florentine　government　and　on