grew；　not　only　the　familiar　incidents　of　ownership；　such　as　the
  right　to　rent　and　the　liability　to　pay　it；　together　with　some
  other　incidents　less　pleasantly　familiar　to　the　student　of　Irish
  history；　but；　above　and　besides　these；　newly　all　the　well…known
  incidents　of　feudal　tenure。　It　is　by　taking　stock　that　the　free
  Irish　tribesman　becomes　the　Ceile　or　Kyle；　the　vassal　or　man　of
  his　Chief；　owing　him　not　only　rent　but　service　and　homage。　The
  exact　effects　of　'commendation'　are　thus　produced；　and　the
  interesting　circumstance　is　that　they　are　produced　from　a　simple
  and　intelligible　motive。　The　transaction　between　Chief　and　Vassal
  is　very　burdensome　to　the　latter；　but　the　necessity　which　leads
  to　it　is　pressing；　and　the　force　of　this　necessity　would　be
  greater　the　more　primitive　the　society　in　which　it　arose；　and　the
  more　recent　its　settlement　on　its　lands。　All　this　is　especially
  instructive；　because　there　is　no　reason　whatever　to　suppose　that
  Beneficiary　grants　and　Commendation　arose　suddenly　in　the　world
  at　the　disruption　of　the　Roman　Empire。　They　were　probably；　in
  some　form　or　other；　deeply　seated　among　the　rudimentary　usages　of
  all　Aryan　societies。
  The　new　position　which　the　tribesman　assumed　through
  accepting　stock　from　a　Chief　varied　according　to　the　quantity　of
  stock　he　received。　If　he　took　much　stock　he　sank　to　a　much　lower
  status　than　if　he　had　taken　little。　On　this　difference　in　the
  quantity　accepted　there　turns　the　difference　between　the　two
  great　classes　of　Irish　tenantry；　the　Saer　and　Daer　tenants；
  between　whose　status　and　that　of　the　free　and　higher　base　tenants
  of　an　English　manor　there　is　a　resemblance　not　to　be　mistaken。
  The　Saer…stock　tenant；　distinguished　by　the　limited　amount　of
  stock　which　he　received　from　the　Chief；　remained　a　freeman　and
  retained　his　tribal　rights　in　their　integrity。　The　normal　period
  of　his　tenancy　was　seven　years；　and　at　the　end　of　it　he　became　en
  titled　to　the　cattle　which　had　been　in　his　possession。　Meantime
  he　had　the　advantage　of　employing　them　in　tillage；　and　the　Chief
  on　his　part　received　the　'growth　and　increase　and　milk；'　the
  first　two　words　implying　the　young　and　the　manure。　So　far　there
  is　nothing　very　remarkable　in　the　arrangement；　but　it　is
  expressly　laid　down　that　besides　this　it　entitled　the　Chief　to
  receive　homage　and　manual　labour；　manual　labour　is　explained　to
  mean　the　service　of　the　vassal　in　reaping　the　Chief's　harvest　and
  in　assisting　to　build　his　castle　or　fort；　and　it　is　stated　that；
  in　lieu　of　manual　labour；　the　vassal　might　be　required　to　follow
  his　Chief　to　the　wars。　Any　large　addition　to　the　stock　deposited
  with　the　Saer…stock　tenant；　or　an　unusual　quantity　accepted　in
  the　first　instance　by　the　tribesman；　created　the　relation　between
  vassal　and　chief　called　Daer…stock　tenancy。　The　Daer…stock　tenant
  had　unquestionably　parted　with　some　portion　of　his　freedom；　and
  his　duties　are　invariably　referred　to　as　very　onerous。　The　stock
  given　to　him　by　the　Chief　consisted　of　two　portions；　of　which　one
  was　proportionate　to　the　rank　of　the　recipient；　the　other　to　the
  rent　in　kind　to　which　the　tenant　became　liable。　The　technical
  standard　of　the　first　was　the　tenant's　'honor…price；'　the　fine　or
  damage　which　was　payable　for　injuring　him；　and　which　in　these
  ancient　systems　of　law　varies　with　the　dignity　of　the　person
  injured。　The　relation　between　the　second　portion　of　stock　and　the
  rent　is　elaborately　defined　in　the　Brehon　law：　'The　proportionate
  stock　of　a　calf　of　the　value　of　a　sack　with　its　accompaniments；
  and　refections　for　three　persons　in　the　summer；　and　work　for
  three　days；　is　three　〃samhaisc〃　heifers　or　their　value'
  （'Cain…Aigillne；'　p。　25）；　or；　in　other　words；　that　the　Chief　may
  entitle　himself　to　the　calf；　the　refections；　and　the　labour；　he
  must　deposit　three　heifers　with　the　tenant。　'The　proportionate
  stock　of　a　〃dartadh　〃　heifer　with　its　accompaniment；　is　twelve
  〃seds；〃'　explained　to　mean　twelve　'samhaisc'　heifers；　or　six
  cows。　And　so　on　in　many　places。　The　rent　in　kind；　or　food…rent；
  which　was　thus　proportioned　to　the　stock　received；　unquestionably
  developed　in　time　in　to　a　rent　payable　in　respect　of　the　tenant's
  land；　but　it　is　certainly　a　curious　and　unexpected　fact　that　the
  rent　of　the　class　which　is　believed　to　have　embraced　a　very　large
  part　of　the　ancient　Irish　tenantry　did　not；　in　its　earliest　form；
  correspond　in　any　way　to　the　value　of　the　tenant's　land；　but
  solely　to　the　value　of　the　Chief's　property　deposited　with　the
  tenant。　But　the　most　burdensome　obligation　imposed　on　the
  Daerstock　tenant　is　that　which；　in　the　quotation　just　made　by　me；
  is　expressed　by　the　word　'refections。'　Beside　the　rent　in　kind
  and　the　feudal　services；　the　Chief　who　had　given　stock　was
  entitled　to　come；　with　a　company　of　a　certain　number；　and　feast
  at　the　Dear　stock　tenant's　house；　at　particular　periods；　for　a
  fixed　number　of　days。　This　'right　of　refection；'　and　liability　to
  it；　are　among　the　most　distinctive　features　of　ancient　Irish
  custom；　and　their　origin　is　probably　to　be　explained　by　the
  circumstance　that　the　Irish　Chief；　though　far　more　privileged
  than　his　tenants；　was　little　better　housed　and　almost　as　poorly
  furnished　out；　and　could　not　have　managed　to　consume　at　home　the
  provisions　to　which　his　gifts　of　stock　entitled　him。　But　the
  practice　had　a　most　unhappy　history。　The　Brehon　law　defines　it
  and　limits　it　narrowly　on　all　sides；　but　its　inconvenience　and
  its　tendency　to　degenerate　into　an　abuse　are　manifest；　and　from
  it　are　doubtless　descended　those　oppressions　which　revolted　such
  English　observers　of　Ireland　as　Spenser　and　Davis；　the　'coin　and
  livery；'　and　the　'cosherings'　of　the　Irish　Chiefs；　which　they
  denounce　with　such　indignant　emphasis。　Perhaps　there　was　no　Irish
  usage　which　seemed　to　Englishmen　so　amply　to　justify　that　which
  as　a　whole　I　believe　to　have　been　a　great　mistake　and　a　great
  wrong；　the　entire　judicial　or　legislative　abolition　of　Irish
  customs。　The　precautions　by　which　the　Brehon　lawyers　could　fence
  it　in　were　not　probably　at　any　time　very　effectual；　but；　as　I
  before　stated；　they　did　what　they　could；　and；　moreover；　as
  defined　by　them；　the　relation　out　of　which　Daer…stock　tenancy　and
  its　peculiar　obligations　arose　was　not　perpetual。　After　food…rent
  and　service　had　been　rendered　for　seven　years；　if　the　Chief　died；
  the　tenant　became　entitled　to　the　stock；　while；　on　the　other
  hand；　if　the　tenant　died；　his　heirs　were　partly；　though　not
  wholly；　relieved　from　their　obligation。　At　the　same　time　it　is
  very　probable　that　Daer…stock　tenancy；　which　must　have　begun　in
  the　necessities　of　the　tenant；　was　often　from　the　same　cause
  rendered　practically　permanent。
  It　has　frequently　been　conjectured　that　certain　incidents　of
  feudal　tenure　pointed　back　to　some　such　system　as　the　Brehon
  tracts　describe　to　us。　The　Heriot　of　English　Copyhold　tenure；　the
  'best　beast'　taken　by　the　Lord　on　the　death　of　a　base　tenant；　has
  been　explained　as　an　acknowledgment　of　the　Lord's　ownership　of
  the　cattle　with　which　he　anciently　stocked　the　land　of　his
  villeins；　just　as　the　Heriot　of　the　military　tenant　is　believed
  to　have　had　its　origin　in　a　deposit　of　arms。　Adam　Smith
  recognised　the　great　antiquity　of　the　Metayer　tenancy；　still
  widely　spread　over　the　Continent；　of　which　one　variety　was　in　his
  day　found　in　Scotland　under　the　name　of　'steelbow。'　I　am　not　at
  all　surprised　that；　in　one　of　the　Prefaces　to　the　official
  translation　of　the　Brehon　laws；　a　comparison　should　be　instituted
  between　this　tenancy　and　the　Saer　and　Daer…stock　tenancy　of
  ancient　Irish　law。　The　outward　resemblance　is　considerable；　and
  the　history　of　Metayer　tenancy　is　so　obscure　that　I　certainly
  cannot　undertake　to　say　that　practices　answering　to　those　I　have