Cain…Aigillne；　the　Law　of　Saer…stock　tenure　and　the　Law　of
  Daer…stock　tenure。
  The　interest　of　these　two　compendia　is　very　great。　In　the
  first　place；　they　go　far　to　show　us　how　it　was　that　the　power　of
  the　tribal　Chief　increased；　not　merely　over　his　servile
  dependants；　but　over　the　free　tribesmen　among　whom　he　had　been　at
  first　only　primus　inter　pares。　In　the　next；　they　give　us；　from
  the　authentic　records　of　the　ancient　usages　of　one　particular
  society；　a　perfectly　novel　example　of　a　proceeding　by　which
  feudal　vassalage　was　created。　I　need　scarcely　dwell　on　the
  historical　importance　of　the　various　agencies　by　which　the
  relation　of　Lord　and　Vassal　was　first　established。　It　was　by　them
  that　the　Western　europe　of　the　Roman　despotism　was　changed　into
  the　Western　Europe　of　the　feudal　sovereignties。　Nothing　can　be
  more　strikingly　unlike　in　external　aspect　than　the　states　of
  society　which　are　discerned　on　either　side　of　the　stormy　interval
  filled　with　the　movement　and　subsidence　of　the　barbarian
  invasions。　Just　before　it　is　reached；　we　see　a　large　part　of
  mankind　arranged；　so　to　speak；　on　one　vast　level　surface
  dominated　in　every　part　by　the　overshadowing　authority　of　the
  Roman　Emperor。　On　this　they　lie　as　so　many　equal　units；　connected
  together　by　no　institutions　which　are　not　assumed　to　be　the
  creation　of　positive　Roman　law；　and　between　them　and　their
  sovereign　there　is　nothing　but　a　host　of　functionaries　who　are
  his　servants。　When　feudal　Europe　has　been　constituted；　all　this
  is　changed。　Everybody　has　become　the　subordinate　of　somebody　else
  higher　than　himself　and　yet　exalted　above　him　by　no　great
  distance。　If　I　may　again　employ　an　image　used　by　me　before；
  society　has　taken　the　form　of　a　pyramid　or　cone。　The　great
  multitude　of　cultivators　is　at　its　base；　and　then　it　mounts　up
  through　ever…narrowing　sections　till　it　approaches　an　apex；　not
  always　visible；　but　always　supposed　to　be　discoverable；　in　the
  Emperor；　or　the　Pope；　or　God　Almighty。　There　is　strong　reason　to
  believe　that　neither　picture　contains　all　the　actual　detail；　and
  that　neither　the　theory　of　the　Roman　lawyers　on　one　side　nor　the
  theory　of　the　feudal　lawyers　on　the　other　accounts　for　or　takes
  notice　of　a　number　of　customs　and　institutions　which　had　a
  practical　existence　in　their　day。　Either　theory　was；　however；
  founded　upon　the　most　striking　facts　of　the　epoch　at　which　it　was
  framed。
  We　know　something；　though　not　very　much；　of　the　formal
  instrumentalities　by　which　the　later　set　of　facts　became　so
  extremely　dissimilar　to　the　earlier。　Mr　Stubbs　（'Constitutional
  History；'　i。　252）　has　thus　summarised　the　most　modern　views　on
  the　subject。　Feudalism　'had　grown　up　from　two　great　sources；　the
  Benefice　and　the　practice　of　Commendation。　The　beneficiary　system
  originated　partly　in　gifts　of　land　made　by　the　kings　out　of　their
  own　estates　to　their　kinsmen　and　servants；　with　a　special
  undertaking　to　be　faithful；　partly　in　the　surrender　by　landowners
  of　their　estates　to　churches　or　powerful　men；　to　be　received　back
  again　and　held　by　them　as　tenants　for　rent　or　service。　By　the
  latter　arrangement　the　weaker　man　obtained　the　protection　of　the
  stronger；　and　he　who　felt　himself　insecure　placed　his　title　under
  the　defence　of　the　Church。　By　the　practice　of　Commendation；　on
  the　other　hand；　the　inferior　put　himself　under　the　personal　care
  of　a　lord；　but　without　altering　his　title　or　divesting　himself　of
  his　right　to　his　estate；　he　became　a　vassal　and　did　homage。'
  Commendation；　in　particular；　went　on　all　over　Western　Europe　with
  singular　universality　of　operation　and　singular　uniformity　of
  result；　and　it　helped　to　transform　the　ancient　structure　of
  Teutonic　society　no　less　than　the　institutions　of　the　Roman
  Provincials。　Yet　there　is　considerable　mystery　about　men's
  motives　for　reporting　to　so　onerous　a　proceeding；　and　the
  statements　of　nearly　all　writers　on　the　subject　are　general　and
  chiefly　conjectural。　Perhaps　the　most　precise　assertion　which　we
  have　been　hitherto　able　to　hazard　as　to　the　reasons　of　so　large　a
  part　of　the　world　for　voluntarily　placing　themselves　in　a
  conditIon　of　personal　subordination　is；　that　they　must　have　been
  connected　with　the　system　of　civil　and　criminal　responsibility
  which　prevailed　in　those　times。　Families　　real　or
  artificial…natural　or　formed　by　agreement　　were　responsible　for
  the　offences　and　even　for　the　civil　liabilities　of　their　members；
  but　corporate　responsibility　must　have　been　replaced；
  conveniently　for　all　persons　concerned；　by　the　responsibility　of
  a　single　lord；　who　could　prevent　injury　and　pay　compensation　for
  it；　and　whose　testimony；　in　compurgation　and　other　legal
  proceedings；　had　a　weight　often　assigned　to　it　exceeding　that　of
  several　inferior　persons　combined。　More　generally；　but　with　at
  least　equal　plausibility；　we　can　lay　down　that　the　general
  disorder　of　the　world　had　much　to　do　with　the　growth　of　the　new
  institutions；　and　that　a　little　society　compactly　united　under　a
  feudal　lord　was　greatly　stronger　for　defence　or　attack　than　any
  body　of　kinsmen　or　co…villagers　and　than　any　assemblage　of
  voluntary　confederates。　It　would　be　absurd；　however；　to　suppose
  that　we　have　materials　for　a　confident　opinion　as　to　men's
  motives　for　submitting　themselves　to　a　change　which　was　probably
  recommended　to　them　or　forced　on　them　by　very　various
  circumstances　in　different　countries　and　in　relatively　different
  stages　of　society。
  I　do　not　wish　to　generalise　unduly　from　the　new　information
  furnished　by　the　Brehon　law；　but　there　has　long　been　a　suspicion
  （I　cannot　call　it　more）　among　learned　men　that　Celtic　usages
  would　throw　some　light　on　Commendation；　and；　at　any　rate；　amid
  the　dearth　of　our　materials；　any　addition　to　them　from　an
  authentic　source　is　of　value。　Let　me　again　state　the　impression　I
  have　formed　of　the　ancient　Irish　land…system；　in　the　stage　at
  which　it　is　revealed　to　us　by　the　Brehon　tracts。　The　land　of　the
  tribe；　whether　cultivated　or　waste；　belongs　to　the　tribe；　and
  this　is　true；　whether　the　tribe　be　a　joint…family　of　kinsmen　or　a
  larger　and　more　artificial　assemblage。　Such　theoretically　is　the
  principle；　if　the　traditional　view　of　the　primitive　state　of
  things　may　be　called　a　theory。　But　much　of　the　territory　of　the
  larger　tribes　hag　been　permanently　assigned　to　Chiefly　families
  or　to　smaller　sub…divisions　of　tribesmen；　and　the　land　of　the
  smaller　sub…divisions　tends　ever　to　become　divided　among　their
  members；　subject　to　certain　reserved　rights　of　the　collective
  brotherhood。　Every　considerable　tribe；　and　almost　every　smaller
  body　of　men　contained　in　it；　is　under　a　Chief；　whether　he　be　one
  of　the　many　tribal　rulers　whom　the　Irish　records　call　Kings；　or
  whether　he　be　one　of　those　heads　of　joint…families　whom　the
  Anglo…Irish　lawyers　at　a　later　date　called　the　Capita
  Cognationum。　But　he　is　not　owner　of　the　tribal　laid。　his　own　land
  he　may　have；　consisting　of　private　estate　or　of　official　domain；
  or　of　both；　and　over　the　general　tribal　land　he　has　a　general
  administrative　authority；　which　is　ever　growing　greater　over　that
  portion　of　it　which　is　unappropriated　waste。　He　is　meanwhile　the
  military　leader　of　his　tribesmen；　and；　probably　in　that　capacity；
  he　has　acquired　great　wealth　in　cattle。　It　has　somehow　become　of
  great　importance　to　him　to　place　out　portions　of　his　herds　among
  the　tribesmen；　and　they　on　their　part　occasionally　find
  themselves　through　stress　of　circumstance　in　pressing　need　of
  cattle　for　employment　in　tillage。　Thus　the　Chiefs　appear　in　the
  Brehon　law　as　perpetually　'giving　stock；'　and　the　tribesmen　as
  receiving　it。　The　remarkable　thing　is；　that　out　of　this　practice
  grew；　not　only　the　familiar　incidents　of　ownership；　such　as　the
  right