principles　of　our　government；〃　which　you　had　been　so　kind　as　to　send
  me；　and　for　which　I　pray　you　to　accept　my　thanks。　　The　difficulties
  of　getting　new　works　in　our　situation；　inland　and　without　a　single
  bookstore；　are　such　as　had　prevented　my　obtaining　a　copy　before；　and
  letters　which　had　accumulated　during　my　absence；　and　were　calling　for
  answers；　have　not　yet　permitted　me　to　give　to　the　whole　a　thorough
  reading；　yet　certain　that　you　and　I　could　not　think　differently　on
  the　fundamentals　of　rightful　government；　I　was　impatient；　and　availed
  myself　of　the　intervals　of　repose　from　the　writing　table；　to　obtain　a
  cursory　idea　of　the　body　of　the　work。
  I　see　in　it　much　matter　for　profound　reflection；　much　which
  should　confirm　our　adhesion；　in　practice；　to　the　good　principles　of
  our　constitution；　and　fix　our　attention　on　what　is　yet　to　be　made
  good。　　The　sixth　section　on　the　good　moral　principles　of　our
  government；　I　found　so　interesting　and　replete　with　sound　principles；
  as　to　postpone　my　letter…writing　to　its　thorough　perusal　and
  consideration。　　Besides　much　other　good　matter；　it　settles
  unanswerably　the　right　of　instructing　representatives；　and　their　duty
  to　obey。　　The　system　of　banking　we　have　both　equally　and　ever
  reprobated。　　I　contemplate　it　as　a　blot　left　in　all　our
  constitutions；　which；　if　not　covered；　will　end　in　their　destruction；
  which　is　already　hit　by　the　gamblers　in　corruption；　and　is　sweeping
  away　in　its　progress　the　fortunes　and　morals　of　our　citizens。
  Funding　I　consider　as　limited；　rightfully；　to　a　redemption　of　the
  debt　within　the　lives　of　a　majority　of　the　generation　contracting　it；
  every　generation　coming　equally；　by　the　laws　of　the　Creator　of　the
  world；　to　the　free　possession　of　the　earth　he　made　for　their
  subsistence；　unincumbered　by　their　predecessors；　who；　like　them；　were
  but　tenants　for　life。　　You　have　successfully　and　completely
  pulverized　Mr。　Adams'　system　of　orders；　and　his　opening　the　mantle　of
  republicanism　to　every　government　of　laws；　whether　consistent　or　not
  with　natural　right。　　Indeed；　it　must　be　acknowledged；　that　the　term
  _republic_　is　of　very　vague　application　in　every　language。　　Witness
  the　self…styled　republics　of　Holland；　Switzerland；　Genoa；　Venice；
  Poland。　　Were　I　to　assign　to　this　term　a　precise　and　definite　idea；　I
  would　say；　purely　and　simply；　it　means　a　government　by　its　citizens
  in　mass；　acting　directly　and　personally；　according　to　rules
  established　by　the　majority；　and　that　every　other　government　is　more
  or　less　republican；　in　proportion　as　it　has　in　its　composition　more
  or　less　of　this　ingredient　of　the　direct　action　of　the　citizens。
  Such　a　government　is　evidently　restrained　to　very　narrow　limits　of
  space　and　population。　　I　doubt　if　it　would　be　practicable　beyond　the
  extent　of　a　New　England　township。　　The　first　shade　from　this　pure
  element；　which；　like　that　of　pure　vital　air；　cannot　sustain　life　of
  itself；　would　be　where　the　powers　of　the　government；　being　divided；
  should　be　exercised　each　by　representatives　chosen　either　_pro　hac
  vice_；　or　for　such　short　terms　as　should　render　secure　the　duty　of
  expressing　the　will　of　their　constituents。　　This　I　should　consider　as
  the　nearest　approach　to　a　pure　republic；　which　is　practicable　on　a
  large　scale　of　country　or　population。　　And　we　have　examples　of　it　in
  some　of　our　States　constitutions；　which；　if　not　poisoned　by
  priest…craft；　would　prove　its　excellence　over　all　mixtures　with　other
  elements；　and；　with　only　equal　doses　of　poison；　would　still　be　the
  best。　　Other　shades　of　republicanism　may　be　found　in　other　forms　of
  government；　where　the　executive；　judiciary　and　legislative　functions；
  and　the　different　branches　of　the　latter；　are　chosen　by　the　people
  more　or　less　directly；　for　longer　terms　of　years　or　for　life；　or　made
  hereditary；　or　where　there　are　mixtures　of　authorities；　some
  dependent　on；　and　others　independent　of　the　people。　　The　further　the
  departure　from　direct　and　constant　control　by　the　citizens；　the　less
  has　the　government　of　the　ingredient　of　republicanism；　evidently　none
  where　the　authorities　are　hereditary；　as　in　France；　Venice；　&c。；　or
  self…chosen；　as　in　Holland；　and　little；　where　for　life；　in　proportion
  as　the　life　continues　in　being　after　the　act　of　election。
  The　purest　republican　feature　in　the　government　of　our　own
  State；　is　the　House　of　Representatives。　　The　Senate　is　equally　so　the
  first　year；　less　the　second；　and　so　on。　　The　Executive　still　less；
  because　not　chosen　by　the　people　directly。　　The　Judiciary　seriously
  anti…republican；　because　for　life；　and　the　national　arm　wielded；　as
  you　observe；　by　military　leaders　irresponsible　but　to　themselves。
  Add　to　this　the　vicious　constitution　of　our　county　courts　（to　whom
  the　justice；　the　executive　administration；　the　taxation；　police；　the
  military　appointments　of　the　county；　and　nearly　all　our　daily
  concerns　are　confided）；　self…appointed；　self…continued；　holding　their
  authorities　for　life；　and　with　an　impossibility　of　breaking　in　on　the
  perpetual　succession　of　any　faction　once　possessed　of　the　bench。
  They　are　in　truth；　the　executive；　the　judiciary；　and　the　military　of
  their　respective　counties；　and　the　sum　of　the　counties　makes　the
  State。　　And　add；　also；　that　one　half　of　our　brethren　who　fight　and
  pay　taxes；　are　excluded；　like　Helots；　from　the　rights　of
  representation；　as　if　society　were　instituted　for　the　soil；　and　not
  for　the　men　inhabiting　it；　or　one　half　of　these　could　dispose　of　the
  rights　and　the　will　of　the　other　half；　without　their　consent。
  〃What　constitutes　a　State？
  Not　high…raised　battlements；　or　labor'd　mound；
  Thick　wall；　or　moated　gate；
  Not　cities　proud；　with　spires　and　turrets　crown'd；
  No：　men；　high　minded　men；
  Men；　who　their　duties　know；
  But　know　their　rights；　and　knowing；　dare　maintain。
  These　constitute　a　State。〃
  In　the　General　Government；　the　House　of　Representatives　is
  mainly　republican；　the　Senate　scarcely　so　at　all；　as　not　elected　by
  the　people　directly；　and　so　long　secured　even　against　those　who　do
  elect　them；　the　Executive　more　republican　than　the　Senate；　from　its
  shorter　term；　its　election　by　the　people；　in　_practice_；　（for　they
  vote　for　A　only　on　an　assurance　that　he　will　vote　for　B；）　and
  because；　_in　practice　also_；　a　principle　of　rotation　seems　to　be　in　a
  course　of　establishment；　the　judiciary　independent　of　the　nation；
  their　coercion　by　impeachment　being　found　nugatory。
  If；　then；　the　control　of　the　people　over　the　organs　of　their
  government　be　the　measure　of　its　republicanism；　and　I　confess　I　know
  no　other　measure；　it　must　be　agreed　that　our　governments　have　much
  less　of　republicanism　than　ought　to　have　been　expected；　in　other
  words；　that　the　people　have　less　regular　control　over　their　agents；
  than　their　rights　and　their　interests　require。　　And　this　I　ascribe；
  not　to　any　want　of　republican　dispositions　in　those　who　formed　these
  constitutions；　but　to　a　submission　of　true　principle　to　European
  authorities；　to　speculators　on　government；　whose　fears　of　the　people
  have　been　inspired　by　the　populace　of　their　own　great　cities；　and
  were　unjustly　entertained　against　the　independent；　the　happy；　and
  therefore　orderly　citizens　of　the　United　States。　　Much　I　apprehend
  that　the　golden　moment　is　past　for　reforming　these　heresies。　　The
  functionaries　of　public　power　rarely　strengthen　in　their　dispositions
  to　abridge　it；　and　an　unorganized　call　for　timely　amendment　is　not
  likely　to　prevail　against　an　organized　opposition　to　it。　　We　are
  always　told　that　things　are　going　on　well；　why　change　them？　　_〃Chi
  sta　bene；　non　si　muove；〃_　said　the　Italian；　〃let　him　who　stands　well；
  stand　still。〃　This　is　true；　and　I　verily　believe　they　would　go　on
  well　with　us　under　an　absolute　monarch；　while　our　present　character
  remains；　of　order；　industry　and　love　of　peace；　and　restrained；　as　he
  would　be；　by　the　proper　spirit　of　the　people。　　But　it　is　while　it
  remains　such；　we　should　provide　against　the　consequences　of　its
  deterioration。　　And　let　us　rest　in　the　hope　that　it　will　yet　be　done；
  and　spare　ourselves　the　pain　of　evils　which　may　never　happen。
  On　this　view　of　the　import　of　the　term　_republic_；　instead　of
  saying；　as　has　been　said；　〃that　it　may　mean　anything　or　nothing；〃　we
  may　say　with　truth　and　meaning；　that　governments　are　more　or　less
  republican　as　they　have　more　or　less　of　the　element　of　popular
  election　and　control　in　their　composition；　and　believing；　as　I　do；
  that　the　mass　of　the　citizens　is　the　safest　depository　of　their　own
  rights；　and　especially；　that　the　evils　flowing　from　the　duperies　of
  the　people；　are　less　injurious　than　those　from　the　egoism　of　their
  agents；　I　am　a　friend　to　that　composition　of　government　which　has　in
  it　the　most　of　this　ingredient。　　And　I　sincerely　believe；　with　you；
  that　banking　establishm