第 72 节
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桃桃逃 更新:2022-08-21 16:33 字数:9315
attempts have been made to introduce the synthetic method into philosophy。 Thus Spinoza; in
particular; begins with definitions。 He says; for instance; that substance is the causa sui。 His
definitions are unquestionably a storehouse of the most speculative truth; but it takes the shape of
dogmatic assertions。 The same thing is also true of Schelling。
§ 230
(b) The statement of the second element of the notion; i。e。 of the specific
character of the universal as particularising; is given by Division in accordance
with some external consideration。
§ 230n
Division we are told ought to be complete。 That requires a principle or ground of division so
constituted that the division based upon it embraces the whole extent of the region designated by
the definition in general。 But; in division; there is the further requirement that the principle of it must
be borrowed from the nature of the object in question。 If this condition be satisfied; the division is
natural and not merely artificial; that is to say; arbitrary。 Thus; in zoology; the ground of division
adopted in the classification of the mammalia is mainly afforded by their teeth and claws。 That is so
far sensible; as the mammals themselves distinguish themselves from one another by these parts of
their bodies back to which therefore the general type of their various classes is to be traced。 In
every case the genuine division must be controlled by the notion。 To that extent a division; in the
first instance; has three members: but as particularity exhibits itself as double; the division may go
to the extent even of four members。 In the sphere of mind trichotomy is predominant; a
circumstance which Kant has the credit for bringing into notice
Theorem
§ 231
'c' In the concrete individuality; where the mere unanalysed quality of the
definition is regarded as a correlation of elements; the object is a synthetic nexus
of distinct characteristics。 It is a Theorem。 Being different; these characteristics
possess but a mediated identity。 To supply the materials; which form the middle
terms; is the office of Construction: and the process of mediation itself; from
which cognition derives the necessity of that nexus; is the Demonstration。
As the difference between the analytical and synthetic methods is commonly
stated; it seems entirely optional which of the two we employ。 If we assume; to
start with; the concrete thing which the synthetic method presents as a result; we
can analyse from it as consequences the abstract propositions which formed the
pre…suppositions and the material for the proof。 Thus; algebraical definitions of
curved lines are theorems in the method of geometry。 Similarly even the
Pythagorean theorem; if made the definition of a right…angled triangle; might yield
to analysis those propositions which geometry had already demonstrated on is
behoof。 The optionalness of either method is due to both alike starting from an
external presupposition。 So far as the nature of the notion is concerned; analysis is
prior; since it has to raise the given material with its empirical concreteness into
the form of general abstractions; which may then be set in the front of the
synthetic method as definitions。
That these methods; however indispensable and brilliantly successful in their own
province; are unserviceable for philosophical cognition; is self…evident。 They have
presuppositions; and their style of cognition is that of understanding; proceeding
under the canon of formal identity。 In Spinoza; who was especially addicted to
the use of the geometrical method; we are at once struck by its characteristic
formalism。 Yet his ideas were speculative in spirit; whereas the system of Wolf;
who carried the method out to the height of pedantry; was even in subject…matter
a metaphysic of the understanding。
The abuses which these methods with their formalism once led to in philosophy
and science have in modern times been followed by the abuses of what is called
'Construction'。 Kant brought into vogue the phrase that mathematics 'construes'
its notions。 All that was meant by the phrase was that mathematics has not to do
with notions; but with abstract qualities of sense…perceptions。 The name
'Construction (construing) of notions' has since been given to a sketch or
statement of sensible attributes which were picked up from perception; quite
guiltless of any influence of the notion; and to the additional formalism of
classifying scientific and philosophical objects in a tabular form on some
presupposed rubric; but in other respects at the fancy and discretion of the
observer。 In the background of all this; certainly; there is a dim consciousness of
the Idea; of the unity of the notion and objectivity … a consciousness too that the
idea is concrete。 But that play of what is styled 'construing' is far from presenting
this unity adequately; a unity which is none other than the notion properly so
called: a perception is as little the concreteness of reason and the idea。
Another point calls for notice。 Geometry works with the sensuous but abstract
perception of space; and in space it experiences no difficulty in isolating and
defining certain simple analytical modes。
To geometry alone therefore belongs in its perfection the synthetic method of
finite cognition。 In its course; however (and this is the remarkable point); it finally
stumbles upon what are termed irrational and incommensurable quantities; and in
their case any attempt at further specification drives it beyond the principle of the
understanding。 This is only one of many instances in terminology; where the title
'rational' is perversely applied to the province of understanding; while we
stigmatise as irrational that which shows a beginning and a trace of rationality。
Other sciences; removed as they are from the simplicity of space or number;
often and necessarily reach a point where understanding permits no further
advance: but they get over the difficulty without trouble。 They make a break in
the strict sequence of their procedure; and assume whatever they require; though
it be the reverse of what preceded; from some external quarter … opinion;
perception; conception; or any other source。 Its inobservancy as to the nature of
its methods and their relativity to the subject…matter prevents this finite cognition
from seeing that; when it proceeds by definitions and divisions; etc。; it is really led
on by the necessity of the laws of the notion。 For the same reason it cannot see
when it has reached its limit; nor; if it have transgressed that limit; does it perceive
that it is in a sphere where the categories of understanding; which it still continues
rudely to apply; have lost all authority。
§232
The necessity which finite cognition produces in the Demonstration is; in the first
place; an external necessity; intended for the subjective intelligence alone。 But in
necessity as such; cognition itself has left behind its presupposition and
starting…point; which consisted in accepting its content as given or found。
Necessity qua necessity is implicitly the self…relating notion。 The subjective idea
has thus implicitly reached an original and objective determinateness … a
something not…given; and for that reason immanent in the subject。 It has passed
over into the idea of Will。
§ 232n
The necessity which cognition reaches by means of the demonstration is the reverse of what
formed its starting…point。 In its starting…point cognition had a given and a contingent content; but
now; at the close of its movement; it knows its content to be necessary。 This necessity is reached
by means of subjective agency。 Similarly; subjectivity at starting was quite abstract; a bare tabula
rasa。 It now shows itself as a modifying and determining principle。 In this way we pass from the
idea of cognition to that of will。 The passage; as will be apparent on a closer examination; means
that the universal; to be truly apprehended; must be apprehended as subjectivity; as a notion
self…moving; active; and form…imposing。
'b' Volition
§233
The subjective idea as original and objective determinateness; and as a simple
uniform content; is the Good。 Its impulse towards self…realisation is in its
behaviour the reverse of the idea of truth; and rather directed towards moulding
the world it finds before it into a shape conformable to its purposed End。 This
Volition has; on the one hand; the certitude of the nothingness of the
presupposed object; but; on the other; as finite; it at the same time presupposes
the purposed End of the Good to be a mere subjective idea; and the object to be
independent。
§ 234
This action of the Will is finite: and its finitude lies in the contradiction that in the
inconsistent terms applied to the objective world the End of the Good is just as
much not executed as executed; the en