第 1 节
作者:不受约束      更新:2022-04-14 11:07      字数:9321
  Of Commerce
  by David Hume
  The greater part of mankind may be divided into two classes;
  that of shallow thinkers; who fall short of the truth; and that
  of abstruse thinkers; who go beyond it。 The latter class are by
  far the most rare: and I may add; by far the most useful and
  valuable。 They suggest hints; at least; and start difficulties;
  which they want; perhaps; skill to pursue; but which may produce
  fine discoveries; when handled by men who have a more just way of
  thinking。 At worst; what they say is uncommon; and if it should
  cost some pains to comprehend it; one has; however; the pleasure
  of hearing something that is new。 An author is little to be
  valued; who tells us nothing but what we can learn from every
  coffee…house conversation。
  All people of shallow thought are apt to decry even those of
  solid understanding; as abstruse thinkers; and metaphysicians;
  and refiners; and never will allow any thing to be just which is
  beyond their own weak conceptions。 There are some cases; I own;
  where an extraordinary refinement affords a strong presumption of
  falsehood; and where no reasoning is to be trusted but what is
  natural and easy。 When a man deliberates concerning his conduct
  in any particular affair; and forms schemes in politics; trade;
  oeconomy; or any business in life; he never ought to draw his
  arguments too fine; or connect too long a chain of consequences
  together。 Something is sure to happen; that will disconcert his
  reasoning; and produce an event different from what he expected。
  But when we reason upon general subjects; one may justly affirm;
  that our speculations can scarcely ever be too fine; provided
  they be just; and that the difference between a common man and a
  man of genius is chiefly seen in the shallowness or depth of the
  principles upon which they proceed。 General reasonings seem
  intricate; merely because they are general; nor is it easy for
  the bulk of mankind to distinguish; in a great number of
  particulars; that common circumstance in which they all agree; or
  to extract it; pure and unmixed; from the other superfluous
  circumstances。 Every judgment or conclusion; with them; is
  particular。 They cannot enlarge their view to those universal
  propositions; which comprehend under them an infinite number of
  individuals; and include a whole science in a single theorem。
  Their eye is confounded with such an extensive prospect; and the
  conclusions; derived from it; even though clearly expressed; seem
  intricate and obscure。 But however intricate they may seem; it is
  certain; that general principles; if just and sound; must always
  prevail in the general course of things; though they may fail in
  particular cases; and it is the chief business of philosophers to
  regard the general course of things。 I may add; that it is also
  the chief business of politicians; especially in the domestic
  government of the state; where the public good; which is; or
  ought to be their object; depends on the concurrence of a
  multitude of causes; not; as in foreign politics; on accidents
  and chances; and the caprices of a few persons。 This therefore
  makes the difference between particular deliberations and general
  reasonings; and renders subtilty and refinement much more
  suitable to the latter than to the former。
  I thought this introduction necessary before the following
  discourses on commerce; money; interest; balance of trade; &c。
  where; perhaps; there will occur some principles which are
  uncommon; and which may seem too refined and subtile for such
  vulgar subjects。 If false; let them be rejected: But no one ought
  to entertain a prejudice against them; merely because they are
  out of the common road。
  The greatness of a state; and the happiness of its subjects;
  how independent soever they may be supposed in some respects; are
  commonly allowed to be inseparable with regard to commerce; and
  as private men receive greater security; in the possession of
  their trade and riches; from the power of the public; so the
  public becomes powerful in proportion to the opulence and
  extensive commerce of private men。 This maxim is true in general;
  though I cannot forbear thinking; that it may possibly admit of
  exceptions; and that we often establish it with too little
  reserve and limitation。 There may be some circumstances; where
  the commerce and riches and luxury of individuals; instead of
  adding strength to the public; will serve only to thin its
  armies; and diminish its authority among the neighbouring
  nations。 Man is a very variable being; and susceptible of many
  different opinions; principles; and rules of conduct。 What may be
  true; while he adheres to one way of thinking; will be found
  false; when he has embraced an opposite set of manners and
  opinions。
  The bulk of every state may be divided into husbandmen and
  manufacturers。 The former are employed in the culture of the
  land; the latter work up the materials furnished by the former;
  into all the commodities which are necessary or ornamental to
  human life。 As soon as men quit their savage state; where they
  live chiefly by hunting and fishing; they must fall into these
  two classes; though the arts of agriculture employ at first the
  most numerous part of the society。 Time and experience improve so
  much these arts; that the land may easily maintain a much greater
  number of men; than those who are immediately employed in its
  culture; or who furnish the more necessary manufactures to such
  as are so employed。
  If these superfluous hands apply themselves to the finer
  arts; which are commonly denominated the arts of luxury; they add
  to the happiness of the state; since they afford to many the
  opportunity of receiving enjoyments; with which they would
  otherwise have been unacquainted。 But may not another scheme be
  proposed for the employment of these superfluous hands? May not
  the sovereign lay claim to them; and employ them in fleets and
  armies; to encrease the dominions of the state abroad。 and spread
  its fame over distant nations? It is certain that the fewer
  desires and wants are found in the proprietors and labourers of
  land; the fewer hands do they employ; and consequently the
  superfluities of the land; instead of maintaining tradesmen and
  manufacturers; may support fleets and armies to a much greater
  extent; than where a great many arts are required to minister to
  the luxury of particular persons。 Here therefore seems to be a
  kind of opposition between the greatness of the state and the
  happiness of the subject。 A state is never greater than when all
  its superfluous hands are employed in the service of the public。
  The ease and convenience of private persons require; that these
  hands should be employed in their service。 The one can never be
  satisfied; but at the expence of the other。 As the ambition of
  the sovereign must entrench on the luxury of individuals; so the
  luxury of individuals must diminish the force; and check the
  ambition of the sovereign。
  Nor is this reasoning merely chimerical; but is founded on
  history and experience。 The republic of SPARTA was certainly more
  powerful than any state now in the world; consisting of an equal
  number of people; and this was owing entirely to the want of
  commerce and luxury。 The HELOTES were the labourers: The SPARTANS
  were the soldiers or gentlemen。 It is evident; that the labour of
  the HELOTES could not have maintained so great a number of
  SPARTANS; had these latter lived in ease and delicacy; and given
  employment to a great variety of trades and manufactures。 The
  like policy may be remarked in ROME。 And indeed; throughout all
  ancient history; it is observable; that the smallest republics
  raised and maintained greater armies; than states consisting of
  triple the number of inhabitants; are able to support at present。
  It is computed; that; in all EUROPEAN nations; the proportion
  between soldiers and people does not exceed one to a hundred。 But
  we read; that the city of ROME alone; with its small territory;
  raised and maintained; in early times; ten legions against the
  LATINS。 ATHENS; the whole of whose dominions was not larger than
  YORKSHIRE; sent to the expedition against SICILY near forty
  thousand men。 DIONYSIUS the elder; it is said; maintained a
  standing army of a hundred thousand foot and ten thousand horse;
  besides a large fleet of four hundred sail; though his
  territories extended no farther than the city of SYRACUSE; about
  a third of the island of SICILY; and some sea…port towns and
  garrisons on the coast of ITALY and ILLYRICUM。 It is true; the
  ancient armies; in time of war; subsisted much upon plunder: But
  did not the enemy plunder in their turn? which was a more ruinous
  way of levying a tax; than any other that could be devised。 In
  short; no probable reason can be assigned for the great power of
  the more ancient states above the modern; but their want of
  commerce and luxury。 Few artizans were maintained by the labour
  of the farmers; and therefore more soldiers might live upon it。
  LIVY says; that ROME; in his time; would find it difficult to
  raise as large an army as that which; in her early days; she sent
  out against the GAULS and LATINS。 Instead of those soldiers who
  fought