avy　and　army　flogging　outraged　the　dignity　of　manhood。　The　liability　to　this　brutal　and　degrading　punishment　kept　all　but　the　dregs　of　the　populace　from　enlisting　in　the　British　army。　It　helped　to　fix　the　deep　gulf　between　officers　and　men。　Forty　years　later　Napoleon　Bonaparte；　despot　though　he　might　be；　was　struck　by　this　separation。　He　himself　went　freely　among　his　men；　warmed　himself　at　their　fire；　and　talked　to　them　familiarly　about　their　work；　and　he　thought　that　the　British　officer　was　too　aloof　in　his　demeanor。　In　the　British　army　serving　in　America　there　were　many　officers　of　aristocratic　birth　and　long　training　in　military　science。　When　they　found　that　American　officers　were　frequently　drawn　from　a　class　of　society　which　in　England　would　never　aspire　to　a　commission；　and　were　largely　self…taught；　not　unnaturally　they　jeered　at　an　army　so　constituted。　Another　fact　excited　British　disdain。　The　Americans　were　technically　rebels　against　their　lawful　ruler；　and　rebels　in　arms　have　no　rights　as　belligerents。　When　the　war　ended　more　than　a　thousand　American　prisoners　were　still　held　in　England　on　the　capital　charge　of　treason。　Nothing　stirred　Washington's　anger　more　deeply　than　the　remark　sometimes　made　by　British　officers　that　the　prisoners　they　took　were　receiving　undeserved　mercy　when　they　were　not　hanged。
  There　was　much　debate　at　Valley　Forge　as　to　the　prospect　for　the　future。　When　we　look　at　available　numbers　during　the　war　we　appreciate　the　view　of　a　British　officer　that　in　spite　of　Washington's　failures　and　of　British　victories　the　war　was　serious；　〃an　ugly　job；　a　damned　affair　indeed。〃　The　population　of　the　coloniessome　2；500；000was　about　one…third　that　of　the　United　Kingdom；　and　for　the　British　the　war　was　remote　from　the　base　of　supply。　In　those　days；　considering　the　means　of　transport；　America　was　as　far　from　England　as　at　the　present　day　is　Australia。　Sometimes　the　voyage　across　the　sea　occupied　two　and　even　three　months；　and；　with　the　relatively　small　ships　of　the　time；　it　required　a　vast　array　of　transports　to　carry　an　army　of　twenty　or　thirty　thousand　men。　In　the　spring　of　1776　Great　Britain　had　found　it　impossible　to　raise　at　home　an　army　of　even　twenty　thousand　men　for　service　in　America；　and　she　was　forced　to　rely　in　large　part　upon　mercenary　soldiers。　This　was　nothing　new。　Her　island　people　did　not　like　service　abroad　and　this　unwillingness　was　intensified　in　regard　to　war　in　remote　America。　Moreover　Whig　leaders　in　England　discouraged　enlistment。　They　were　bitterly　hostile　to　the　war　which　they　regarded　as　an　attack　not　less　on　their　own　liberties　than　on　those　of　America。　It　would　be　too　much　to　ascribe　to　the　ignorant　British　common　soldier　of　the　time　any　deep　conviction　as　to　the　merits　or　demerits　of　the　cause　for　which　he　fought。　There　is　no　evidence　that；　once　in　the　army；　he　was　less　ready　to　attack　the　Americans　than　any　other　foe。　Certainly　the　Americans　did　not　think　he　was　half…hearted。
  The　British　soldier　fought　indeed　with　more　resolute　determination　than　did　the　hired　auxiliary　at　his　side。　These　German　troops　played　a　notable　part　in　the　war。　The　despotic　princes　of　the　lesser　German　states　were　accustomed　to　sell　the　services　of　their　troops。　Despotic　Russia；　too；　was　a　likely　field　for　such　enterprise。　When；　however；　it　was　proposed　to　the　Empress　Catherine　II　that　she　should　furnish　twenty　thousand　men　for　service　in　America　she　retorted　with　the　sage　advice　that　it　was　England's　true　interest　to　settle　the　quarrel　in　America　without　war。　Germany　was　left　as　the　recruiting　field。　British　efforts　to　enlist　Germans　as　volunteers　in　her　own　army　were　promptly　checked　by　the　German　rulers　and　it　was　necessary　literally　to　buy　the　troops　from　their　princes。　One…fourth　of　the　able…bodied　men　of　Hesse…Cassel　were　shipped　to　America。　They　received　four　times　the　rate　of　pay　at　home　and　their　ruler　received　in　addition　some　half　million　dollars　a　year。　The　men　suffered　terribly　and　some　died　of　sickness　for　the　homes　to　which　thousands　of　them　never　returned。　German　generals；　such　as　Knyphausen　and　Riedesel；　gave　the　British　sincere　and　effective　service。　The　Hessians　were；　however；　of　doubtful　benefit　to　the　British。　It　angered　the　Americans　that　hired　troops　should　be　used　against　them；　an　anger　not　lessened　by　the　contempt　which　the　Hessians　showed　for　the　colonial　officers　as　plebeians。
  The　two　sides　were　much　alike　in　their　qualities　and　were　skillful　in　propaganda。　In　Britain　lurid　tales　were　told　of　the　colonists　scalping　the　wounded　at　Lexington　and　using　poisoned　bullets　at　Bunker　Hill。　In　America　every　prisoner　in　British　hands　was　said　to　be　treated　brutally　and　every　man　slain　in　the　fighting　to　have　been　murdered。　The　use　of　foreign　troops　was　a　fruitful　theme。　The　report　ran　through　the　colonies　that　the　Hessians　were　huge　ogre…like　monsters；　with　double　rows　of　teeth　round　each　jaw；　who　had　come　at　the　call　of　the　British　tyrant　to　slay　women　and　children。　In　truth　many　of　the　Hessians　became　good　Americans。　In　spite　of　the　loyalty　of　their　officers　they　were　readily　induced　to　desert。　The　wit　of　Benjamin　Franklin　was　enlisted　to　compose　telling　appeals；　translated　into　simple　German；　which　promised　grants　of　land　to　those　who　should　abandon　an　unrighteous　cause。　The　Hessian　trooper　who　opened　a　packet　of　tobacco　might　find　in　the　wrapper　appeals　both　to　his　virtue　and　to　his　cupidity。　It　was　easy　for　him　to　resist　them　when　the　British　were　winning　victories　and　he　was　dreaming　of　a　return　to　the　Fatherland　with　a　comfortable　accumulation　of　pay；　but　it　was　different　when　reverses　overtook　British　arms。　Then　many　hundreds　slipped　away；　and　today　their　blood　flows　in　the　veins　of　thousands　of　prosperous　American　farmers。
  CHAPTER　VIII。　THE　ALLIANCE　WITH　FRANCE　AND　ITS　RESULTS
  Washington　badly　needed　aid　from　Europe；　but　there　every　important　government　was　monarchical　and　it　was　not　easy　for　a　young　republic；　the　child　of　revolution；　to　secure　an　ally。　France　tingled　with　joy　at　American　victories　and　sorrowed　at　American　reverses；　but　motives　were　mingled　and　perhaps　hatred　of　England　was　stronger　than　love　for　liberty　in　America。　The　young　La　Fayette　had　a　pure　zeal；　but　he　would　not　have　fought　for　the　liberty　of　colonists　in　Mexico　as　he　did　for　those　in　Virginia；　and　the　difference　was　that　service　in　Mexico　would　not　hurt　the　enemy　of　France　so　recently　triumphant。　He　hated　England　and　said　so　quite　openly。　The　thought　of　humiliating　and　destroying　that　〃insolent　nation〃　was　always　to　him　an　inspiration。　Vergennes；　the　French　Foreign　Minister；　though　he　lacked　genius；　was　a　man　of　boundless　zeal　and　energy。　He　was　at　work　at　four　o'clock　in　the　morning　and　he　spent　his　long　days　in　toil　for　his　country。　He　believed　that　England　was　the　tyrant　of　the　seas；　〃the　monster　against　whom　we　should　be　always　prepared；〃　a　greedy；　perfidious　neighbor；　the　natural　enemy　of　France。
  From　the　first　days　of　the　trouble　in　regard　to　the　Stamp　Act　Vergennes　had　rejoiced　that　England's　own　children　were　turning　against　her。　He　had　French　military　officers　in　England　spying　on　her　defenses。　When　war　broke　out　he　showed　no　nice　regard　for　the　rules　of　neutrality　and　helped　the　colonies　in　every　way　possible。　It　was　a　French　writer　who　led　in　these　activities。　Beaumarchais　is　known　to　the　world　chiefly　as　the　creator　of　the　character　of　Figaro；　which　has　become　the　type　of　the　bold；　clever；　witty；　and　intriguing　rascal；　but　he　played　a　real　part　in　the　American　Revolution。　We　need　not　inquire　too　closely　into　his　motives。　There　was　hatred　of　the　English；　that　〃audacious；　unbridled；　shameless　people；〃　and　there　was；　too；　the　zeal　for　liberal　ideas　which　made　Queen　Marie　Antoinette　herself　take　a　pretty　interest　in　the　〃dear　republicans〃　overseas　who　were　at　the　same　time　fighting　the　national　enemy。　Beaumarchais　secured　from　the　government　money　with　which　he　purchased　supplies　to　be　sent　to　America。　He　had　a　great　warehouse　in　Paris；　and；　under　the　rather　fantastic　Spanish　name　of　Roderigue　Hortalez　&　Co。；　he　sent　vast　quantities　of　munitions　and　clothing　to　America。　Cannon；　not　from　private　firms　but　from　the　government　arsenals；　were　sent　across　the　sea。　When　Vergennes　showed　scruples　about　this　violation　of　neutrality；　the　answer　of　Beaumarchais　was　that　governments　were　not　bound　by　rules　of　morality　applicable　to　private　persons。　Vergennes　learned　well　the　lesson　and；　while　protesting　to　the　British　ambassador　in　Paris　that　France　was　blameless；　he　permitted　outrageous　breaches　of　the　laws　of　neutrality。
  Secret　help　was　one　thing；　open　alliance　another。　Early　in　1776　Silas　Deane；　a　member　from　Connecticut　of　the　Continental　Congress；　was　named　as　envoy　to　France　to　secure　French　aid。　The　day　was　to　come　when　Deane　should　believe　the　struggle　against　Britain　hopeless　and　counsel　submission；　but　now　he　showed　a　furious　zeal。　He　knew　hardly　a　word　of　French；　but　this　did　not　keep　him　from　making　his　elaborate　programme　well　understood。　Himself　a　trader；　he　promised　France　vast　profits　from　the　monopoly　of　the　trade　of　America　when　independence　should　be　secure。　He　gave　other　promises　not　more　easy　of　fulfillment。　To　Frenchmen　zealous　for　the　ideals　of　liberty　and　seeking　military　c