he　bank。
  The　Bank　of　the　United　States　always　holds　a　great　number　of　the　notes　issued　by　the　provincial　banks；　which　it　can　at　any　time　oblige　them　to　convert　into　cash。　　It　has　itself　nothing　to　fear　from　a　similar　demand；　as　the　extent　of　its　resources　enables　it　to　meet　all　claims。　　But　the　existence　of　the　provincial　banks　is　thus　threatened；　and　their　operations　are　restricted；　since　they　are　only　able　to　issue　a　quantity　of　notes　duly　proportioned　to　their　capital。　　They　submit　with　impatience　to　this　salutary　control。　　The　newspapers　which　they　have　bought　over；　and　the　President；　whose　interest　renders　him　their　instrument；　attack　the　bank　with　the　greatest　vehemence。　　They　rouse　the　local　passions　and　the　blind　democratic　instinct　of　the　country　to　aid　their　cause；　and　they　assert　that　the　bank　directors　form　a　permanent　aristocratic　body；　whose　influence　must　ultimately　be　felt　in　the　Government；　and　must　affect　those　principles　of　equality　upon　which　society　rests　in　America。
  The　contest　between　the　bank　and　its　opponents　is　only　an　incident　in　the　great　struggle　which　is　going　on　in　America　between　the　provinces　and　the　central　power；　between　the　spirit　of　democratic　independence　and　the　spirit　of　gradation　and　subordination。　　I　do　not　mean　that　the　enemies　of　the　bank　are　identically　the　same　individuals　who；　on　other　points；　attack　the　Federal　Government；　but　I　assert　that　the　attacks　directed　against　the　bank　of　the　United　States　originate　in　the　same　propensities　which　militate　against　the　Federal　Government；　and　that　the　very　numerous　opponents　of　the　former　afford　a　deplorable　symptom　of　the　decreasing　support　of　the　latter。
  The　Union　has　never　displayed　so　much　weakness　as　in　the　celebrated　question　of　the　tariff。　*a　The　wars　of　the　French　Revolution　and　of　1812　had　created　manufacturing　establishments　in　the　North　of　the　Union；　by　cutting　off　all　free　communication　between　America　and　Europe。　　When　peace　was　concluded；　and　the　channel　of　intercourse　reopened　by　which　the　produce　of　Europe　was　transmitted　to　the　New　World；　the　Americans　thought　fit　to　establish　a　system　of　import　duties；　for　the　twofold　purpose　of　protecting　their　incipient　manufactures　and　of　paying　off　the　amount　of　the　debt　contracted　during　the　war。　　The　Southern　States；　which　have　no　manufactures　to　encourage；　and　which　are　exclusively　agricultural；　soon　complained　of　this　measure。　　Such　were　the　simple　facts；　and　I　do　not　pretend　to　examine　in　this　place　whether　their　complaints　were　well　founded　or　unjust。
  ＇Footnote　a：　See　principally　for　the　details　of　this　affair；　the　Legislative　Documents；　22d　Congress；　2d　Session；　No。　30。＇
  As　early　as　the　year　1820；　South　Carolina　declared；　in　a　petition　to　Congress；　that　the　tariff　was　〃unconstitutional；　oppressive；　and　unjust。〃　And　the　States　of　Georgia；　Virginia；　North　Carolina；　Alabama；　and　Mississippi　subsequently　remonstrated　against　it　with　more　or　less　vigor。　　But　Congress；　far　from　lending　an　ear　to　these　complaints；　raised　the　scale　of　tariff　duties　in　the　years　1824　and　1828；　and　recognized　anew　the　principle　on　which　it　was　founded。　　A　doctrine　was　then　proclaimed；　or　rather　revived；　in　the　South；　which　took　the　name　of　Nullification。
  I　have　shown　in　the　proper　place　that　the　object　of　the　Federal　Constitution　was　not　to　form　a　league；　but　to　create　a　national　government。　The　Americans　of　the　United　States　form　a　sole　and　undivided　people；　in　all　the　cases　which　are　specified　by　that　Constitution；　and　upon　these　points　the　will　of　the　nation　is　expressed；　as　it　is　in　all　constitutional　nations；　by　the　voice　of　the　majority。　　When　the　majority　has　pronounced　its　decision；　it　is　the　duty　of　the　minority　to　submit。　　Such　is　the　sound　legal　doctrine；　and　the　only　one　which　agrees　with　the　text　of　the　Constitution；　and　the　known　intention　of　those　who　framed　it。
  The　partisans　of　Nullification　in　the　South　maintain；　on　the　contrary；　that　the　intention　of　the　Americans　in　uniting　was　not　to　reduce　themselves　to　the　condition　of　one　and　the　same　people；　that　they　meant　to　constitute　a　league　of　independent　States；　and　that　each　State；　consequently　retains　its　entire　sovereignty；　if　not　de　facto；　at　least　de　jure；　and　has　the　right　of　putting　its　own　construction　upon　the　laws　of　Congress；　and　of　suspending　their　execution　within　the　limits　of　its　own　territory；　if　they　are　held　to　be　unconstitutional　and　unjust。
  The　entire　doctrine　of　Nullification　is　comprised　in　a　sentence　uttered　by　Vice…President　Calhoun；　the　head　of　that　party　in　the　South；　before　the　Senate　of　the　United　States；　in　the　year　1833：　could：　〃The　Constitution　is　a　compact　to　which　the　States　were　parties　in　their　sovereign　capacity；　now；　whenever　a　compact　is　entered　into　by　parties　which　acknowledge　no　tribunal　above　their　authority　to　decide　in　the　last　resort；　each　of　them　has　a　right　to　judge　for　itself　in　relation　to　the　nature；　extent；　and　obligations　of　the　instrument。〃　It　is　evident　that　a　similar　doctrine　destroys　the　very　basis　of　the　Federal　Constitution；　and　brings　back　all　the　evils　of　the　old　confederation；　from　which　the　Americans　were　supposed　to　have　had　a　safe　deliverance。
  When　South　Carolina　perceived　that　Congress　turned　a　deaf　ear　to　its　remonstrances；　it　threatened　to　apply　the　doctrine　of　nullification　to　the　federal　tariff　bill。　　Congress　persisted　in　its　former　system；　and　at　length　the　storm　broke　out。　　In　the　course　of　1832　the　citizens　of　South　Carolina；　*b　named　a　national　Convention；　to　consult　upon　the　extraordinary　measures　which　they　were　called　upon　to　take；　and　on　November　24th　of　the　same　year　this　Convention　promulgated　a　law；　under　the　form　of　a　decree；　which　annulled　the　federal　law　of　the　tariff；　forbade　the　levy　of　the　imposts　which　that　law　commands；　and　refused　to　recognize　the　appeal　which　might　be　made　to　the　federal　courts　of　law。　*c　This　decree　was　only　to　be　put　in　execution　in　the　ensuing　month　of　February；　and　it　was　intimated；　that　if　Congress　modified　the　tariff　before　that　period；　South　Carolina　might　be　induced　to　proceed　no　further　with　her　menaces；　and　a　vague　desire　was　afterwards　expressed　of　submitting　the　question　to　an　extraordinary　assembly　of　all　the　confederate　States。
  ＇Footnote　b：　That　is　to　say；　the　majority　of　the　people；　for　the　opposite　party；　called　the　Union　party；　always　formed　a　very　strong　and　active　minority。　　Carolina　may　contain　about　47；000　electors；　30；000　were　in　favor　of　nullification；　and　17；000　opposed　to　it。＇
  ＇Footnote　c：　This　decree　was　preceded　by　a　report　of　the　committee　by　which　it　was　framed；　containing　the　explanation　of　the　motives　and　object　of　the　law。　The　following　passage　occurs　in　it；　p。　34：　…　　〃When　the　rights　reserved　by　the　Constitution　to　the　different　States　are　deliberately　violated；　it　is　the　duty　and　the　right　of　those　States　to　interfere；　in　order　to　check　the　progress　of　the　evil；　to　resist　usurpation；　and　to　maintain；　within　their　respective　limits；　those　powers　and　privileges　which　belong　to　them　as　independent　sovereign　States。　　If　they　were　destitute　of　this　right；　they　would　not　be　sovereign。　　South　Carolina　declares　that　she　acknowledges　no　tribunal　upon　earth　above　her　authority。　　She　has　indeed　entered　into　a　solemn　compact　of　union　with　the　other　States；　but　she　demands；　and　will　exercise；　the　right　of　putting　her　own　construction　upon　it；　and　when　this　compact　is　violated　by　her　sister　States；　and　by　the　Government　which　they　have　created；　she　is　determined　to　avail　herself　of　the　unquestionable　right　of　judging　what　is　the　extent　of　the　infraction；　and　what　are　the　measures　best　fitted　to　obtain　justice。〃＇
  Chapter　XVIII：　Future　Condition　Of　Three　Races　…　Part　IX
  In　the　meantime　South　Carolina　armed　her　militia；　and　prepared　for　war。　But　Congress；　which　had　slighted　its　suppliant　subjects；　listened　to　their　complaints　as　soon　as　they　were　found　to　have　taken　up　arms。　*d　A　law　was　passed；　by　which　the　tariff　duties　were　to　be　progressively　reduced　for　ten　years；　until　they　were　brought　so　low　as　not　to　exceed　the　amount　of　supplies　necessary　to　the　Government。　*e　Thus　Congress　completely　abandoned　the　principle　of　the　tariff；　and　substituted　a　mere　fiscal　impost　to　a　system　of　protective　duties。　*f　The　Government　of　the　Union；　in　order　to　conceal　its　defeat；　had　recourse　to　an　expedient　which　is　very　much　in　vogue　with　feeble　governments。　　It　yielded　the　point　de　facto；　but　it　remained　inflexible　upon　the　principles　in　question；　and　whilst　Congress　was　altering　the　tariff　law；　it　passed　another　bill；　by　which　the　President　was　invested　with　extraordinary　powers；　enabling　him　to　overcome　by　force　a　resistance　which　was　then　no　longer　to　be　apprehended。
  ＇Footnote　d：　Congress　was　finally　decided　to　take　this　step　by　the　conduct　of　the　powerful　State　of　Virginia；　whose　legislature　offered　to　serve　as　mediator　between　the　Union　and　South　Carolina。　　Hitherto　the　latter　State　had　appeared　to　be　entirely　abandoned；　even　by　the　States　which　had　joined　in　her　remonstrances。＇
  ＇Footnote　e：　This　law　was　passed　on　March　2；　1833。＇
  ＇Footnote　f：　This　bill　was　brought　in　by　Mr。　Clay；　and　it　passed　in　four　days　through　both　Houses　of　Congress　by　an　immense　majority。＇
  But　South　Caroli