Such　are　the　principal　differences　which　the　systems　of　county　and　town　administration　present　in　the　Federal　States。　　Were　it　my　intention　to　examine　the　provisions　of　American　law　minutely；　I　should　have　to　point　out　still　further　differences　in　the　executive　details　of　the　several　communities。　　But　what　I　have　already　said　may　suffice　to　show　the　general　principles　on　which　the　administration　of　the　United　States　rests。　　These　principles　are　differently　applied；　their　consequences　are　more　or　less　numerous　in　various　localities；　but　they　are　always　substantially　the　same。　The　laws　differ；　and　their　outward　features　change；　but　their　character　does　not　vary。　　If　the　township　and　the　county　are　not　everywhere　constituted　in　the　same　manner；　it　is　at　least　true　that　in　the　United　States　the　county　and　the　township　are　always　based　upon　the　same　principle；　namely；　that　everyone　is　the　best　judge　of　what　concerns　himself　alone；　and　the　most　proper　person　to　supply　his　private　wants。　　The　township　and　the　county　are　therefore　bound　to　take　care　of　their　special　interests：　the　State　governs；　but　it　does　not　interfere　with　their　administration。　　Exceptions　to　this　rule　may　be　met　with；　but　not　a　contrary　principle。
  The　first　consequence　of　this　doctrine　has　been　to　cause　all　the　magistrates　to　be　chosen　either　by　or　at　least　from　amongst　the　citizens。　As　the　officers　are　everywhere　elected　or　appointed　for　a　certain　period；　it　has　been　impossible　to　establish　the　rules　of　a　dependent　series　of　authorities；　there　are　almost　as　many　independent　functionaries　as　there　are　functions；　and　the　executive　power　is　disseminated　in　a　multitude　of　hands。　Hence　arose　the　indispensable　necessity　of　introducing　the　control　of　the　courts　of　justice　over　the　administration；　and　the　system　of　pecuniary　penalties；　by　which　the　secondary　bodies　and　their　representatives　are　constrained　to　obey　the　laws。　This　system　obtains　from　one　end　of　the　Union　to　the　other。　　The　power　of　punishing　the　misconduct　of　public　officers；　or　of　performing　the　part　of　the　executive　in　urgent　cases；　has　not；　however；　been　bestowed　on　the　same　judges　in　all　the　States。　　The　Anglo…Americans　derived　the　institution　of　justices　of　the　peace　from　a　common　source；　but　although　it　exists　in　all　the　States；　it　is　not　always　turned　to　the　same　use。　　The　justices　of　the　peace　everywhere　participate　in　the　administration　of　the　townships　and　the　counties；　*h　either　as　public　officers　or　as　the　judges　of　public　misdemeanors；　but　in　most　of　the　States　the　more　important　classes　of　public　offences　come　under　the　cognizance　of　the　ordinary　tribunals。
  ＇Footnote　h：　In　some　of　the　Southern　States　the　county　courts　are　charged　with　all　the　details　of　the　administration。　　See　the　Statutes　of　the　State　of　Tennessee；　arts。　　Judiciary；　Taxes；　etc。＇
  The　election　of　public　officers；　or　the　inalienability　of　their　functions；　the　absence　of　a　gradation　of　powers；　and　the　introduction　of　a　judicial　control　over　the　secondary　branches　of　the　administration；　are　the　universal　characteristics　of　the　American　system　from　Maine　to　the　Floridas。　In　some　States　（and　that　of　New　York　has　advanced　most　in　this　direction）　traces　of　a　centralized　administration　begin　to　be　discernible。　　In　the　State　of　New　York　the　officers　of　the　central　government　exercise；　in　certain　cases；　a　sort　of　inspection　or　control　over　the　secondary　bodies。　*i
  ＇Footnote　i：　For　instance；　the　direction　of　public　instruction　centres　in　the　hands　of　the　Government。　　The　legislature　names　the　members　of　the　University；　who　are　denominated　Regents；　the　Governor　and　Lieutentant…Governor　of　the　State　are　necessarily　of　the　number。　…　Revised　Statutes；　vol。　i。　p。　455。　　The　Regents　of　the　University　annually　visit　the　colleges　and　academies；　and　make　their　report　to　the　legislature。　　Their　superintendence　is　not　inefficient；　for　several　reasons：　the　colleges　in　order　to　become　corporations　stand　in　need　of　a　charter；　which　is　only　granted　on　the　recommendation　of　the　Regents；　every　year　funds　are　distributed　by　the　State　for　the　encouragement　of　learning；　and　the　Regents　are　the　distributors　of　this　money。　　See　chap。　xv。　Instruction；〃　Revised　Statutes；　vol。　i。　p。　455。
  The　school…commissioners　are　obliged　to　send　an　annual　report　to　the　Superintendent　of　the　Republic。　…　Id。　p。　488。
  A　similar　report　is　annually　made　to　the　same　person　on　the　number　and　condition　of　the　poor。　…　Id。　p。　631。＇
  At　other　times　they　constitute　a　court　of　appeal　for　the　decision　of　affairs。　*j　In　the　State　of　New　York　judicial　penalties　are　less　used　than　in　other　parts　as　a　means　of　administration；　and　the　right　of　prosecuting　the　offences　of　public　officers　is　vested　in　fewer　hands。　*k　The　same　tendency　is　faintly　observable　in　some　other　States；　*l　but　in　general　the　prominent　feature　of　the　administration　in　the　United　States　is　its　excessive　local　independence。
  ＇Footnote　j：　If　any　one　conceives　himself　to　be　wronged　by　the　school…commissioners　（who　are　town…officers）；　he　can　appeal　to　the　superintendent　of　the　primary　schools；　whose　decision　is　final。　…　Revised　Statutes；　vol。　i。　p。　487。
  Provisions　similar　to　those　above　cited　are　to　be　met　with　from　time　to　time　in　the　laws　of　the　State　of　New　York；　but　in　general　these　attempts　at　centralization　are　weak　and　unproductive。　　The　great　authorities　of　the　State　have　the　right　of　watching　and　controlling　the　subordinate　agents；　without　that　of　rewarding　or　punishing　them。　　The　same　individual　is　never　empowered　to　give　an　order　and　to　punish　disobedience；　he　has　therefore　the　right　of　commanding；　without　the　means　of　exacting　compliance。　　In　1830　the　Superintendent　of　Schools　complained　in　his　Annual　Report　addressed　to　the　legislature　that　several　school…commissioners　had　neglected；　notwithstanding　his　application；　to　furnish　him　with　the　accounts　which　were　due。　　He　added　that　if　this　omission　continued　he　should　be　obliged　to　prosecute　them；　as　the　law　directs；　before　the　proper　tribunals。＇
  ＇Footnote　k：　Thus　the　district…attorney　is　directed　to　recover　all　fines　below　the　sum　of　fifty　dollars；　unless　such　a　right　has　been　specially　awarded　to　another　magistrate。　…　Revised　Statutes；　vol。　i。　p。　383。＇
  ＇Footnote　l：　Several　traces　of　centralization　may　be　discovered　in　Massachusetts；　for　instance；　the　committees　of　the　town…schools　are　directed　to　make　an　annual　report　to　the　Secretary　of　State。　　See　Laws　of　Massachusetts；　vol。　i。　p。　367。＇
  Of　The　State
  I　have　described　the　townships　and　the　administration；　it　now　remains　for　me　to　speak　of　the　State　and　the　Government。　　This　is　ground　I　may　pass　over　rapidly；　without　fear　of　being　misunderstood；　for　all　I　have　to　say　is　to　be　found　in　written　forms　of　the　various　constitutions；　which　are　easily　to　be　procured。　　These　constitutions　rest　upon　a　simple　and　rational　theory；　their　forms　have　been　adopted　by　all　constitutional　nations；　and　are　become　familiar　to　us。　　In　this　place；　therefore；　it　is　only　necessary　for　me　to　give　a　short　analysis；　I　shall　endeavor　afterwards　to　pass　judgment　upon　what　I　now　describe。
  Chapter　V：　Necessity　Of　Examining　The　Condition　Of　The　States　…　Part　III
  Legislative　Power　Of　The　State
  Division　of　the　Legislative　Body　into　two　Houses　…　Senate　…　House　of　Representatives　…　Different　functions　of　these　two　Bodies。
  The　legislative　power　of　the　State　is　vested　in　two　assemblies；　the　first　of　which　generally　bears　the　name　of　the　Senate。　　The　Senate　is　commonly　a　legislative　body；　but　it　sometimes　becomes　an　executive　and　judicial　one。　　It　takes　a　part　in　the　government　in　several　ways；　according　to　the　constitution　of　the　different　States；　*m　but　it　is　in　the　nomination　of　public　functionaries　that　it　most　commonly　assumes　an　executive　power。　It　partakes　of　judicial　power　in　the　trial　of　certain　political　offences；　and　sometimes　also　in　the　decision　of　certain　civil　cases。　*n　The　number　of　its　members　is　always　small。　　The　other　branch　of　the　legislature；　which　is　usually　called　the　House　of　Representatives；　has　no　share　whatever　in　the　administration；　and　only　takes　a　part　in　the　judicial　power　inasmuch　as　it　impeaches　public　functionaries　before　the　Senate。　　The　members　of　the　two　Houses　are　nearly　everywhere　subject　to　the　same　conditions　of　election。　They　are　chosen　in　the　same　manner；　and　by　the　same　citizens。　　The　only　difference　which　exists　between　them　is；　that　the　term　for　which　the　Senate　is　chosen　is　in　general　longer　than　that　of　the　House　of　Representatives。　The　latter　seldom　remain　in　office　longer　than　a　year；　the　former　usually　sit　two　or　three　years。　　By　granting　to　the　senators　the　privilege　of　being　chosen　for　several　years；　and　being　renewed　seriatim；　the　law　takes　care　to　preserve　in　the　legislative　body　a　nucleus　of　men　already　accustomed　to　public　business；　and　capable　of　exercising　a　salutary　influence　upon　the　junior　members。
  ＇Footnote　m：　In　Massachusetts　the　Senate　is　not　invested　with　any　administrative　functions。＇
  ＇Footnote　n：　As　in　the　State　of　New　York。＇
  The　Americans；　plainly；　did　not　desire；　by　this　separation　of　the　legislative　body　into　two　branches；　to　make　one　house　hereditary　and　the　other　elective；　one　aristocratic　and　the　other　democratic。　　It　was　not　their