the　State。　　It　is　therefore　necessary　to　become　acquainted　with　the　State　in　order　to　possess　a　clue　to　the　remainder。　　The　States　which　at　present　compose　the　American　Union　all　present　the　same　features；　as　far　as　regards　the　external　aspect　of　their　institutions。　　Their　political　or　administrative　existence　is　centred　in　three　focuses　of　action；　which　may　not　inaptly　be　compared　to　the　different　nervous　centres　which　convey　motion　to　the　human　body。　　The　township　is　the　lowest　in　order；　then　the　county；　and　lastly　the　State；　and　I　propose　to　devote　the　following　chapter　to　the　examination　of　these　three　divisions。
  The　American　System　Of　Townships　And　Municipal　Bodies
  Why　the　Author　begins　the　examination　of　the　political　institutions　with　the　township　…　Its　existence　in　all　nations　…　Difficulty　of　establishing　and　preserving　municipal　independence　…　Its　importance　…　Why　the　Author　has　selected　the　township　system　of　New　England　as　the　main　topic　of　his　discussion。
  It　is　not　undesignedly　that　I　begin　this　subject　with　the　Township。　　The　village　or　township　is　the　only　association　which　is　so　perfectly　natural　that　wherever　a　number　of　men　are　collected　it　seems　to　constitute　itself。
  The　town；　or　tithing；　as　the　smallest　division　of　a　community；　must　necessarily　exist　in　all　nations；　whatever　their　laws　and　customs　may　be：　if　man　makes　monarchies　and　establishes　republics；　the　first　association　of　mankind　seems　constituted　by　the　hand　of　God。　　But　although　the　existence　of　the　township　is　coeval　with　that　of　man；　its　liberties　are　not　the　less　rarely　respected　and　easily　destroyed。　　A　nation　is　always　able　to　establish　great　political　assemblies；　because　it　habitually　contains　a　certain　number　of　individuals　fitted　by　their　talents；　if　not　by　their　habits；　for　the　direction　of　affairs。　　The　township　is；　on　the　contrary；　composed　of　coarser　materials；　which　are　less　easily　fashioned　by　the　legislator。　　The　difficulties　which　attend　the　consolidation　of　its　independence　rather　augment　than　diminish　with　the　increasing　enlightenment　of　the　people。　　A　highly　civilized　community　spurns　the　attempts　of　a　local　independence；　is　disgusted　at　its　numerous　blunders；　and　is　apt　to　despair　of　success　before　the　experiment　is　completed。　Again；　no　immunities　are　so　ill　protected　from　the　encroachments　of　the　supreme　power　as　those　of　municipal　bodies　in　general：　they　are　unable　to　struggle；　single…　handed；　against　a　strong　or　an　enterprising　government；　and　they　cannot　defend　their　cause　with　success　unless　it　be　identified　with　the　customs　of　the　nation　and　supported　by　public　opinion。　　Thus　until　the　independence　of　townships　is　amalgamated　with　the　manners　of　a　people　it　is　easily　destroyed；　and　it　is　only　after　a　long　existence　in　the　laws　that　it　can　be　thus　amalgamated。　　Municipal　freedom　is　not　the　fruit　of　human　device；　it　is　rarely　created；　but　it　is；　as　it　were；　secretly　and　spontaneously　engendered　in　the　midst　of　a　semi…barbarous　state　of　society。　　The　constant　action　of　the　laws　and　the　national　habits；　peculiar　circumstances；　and　above　all　time；　may　consolidate　it；　but　there　is　certainly　no　nation　on　the　continent　of　Europe　which　has　experienced　its　advantages。　　Nevertheless　local　assemblies　of　citizens　constitute　the　strength　of　free　nations。　　Town…meetings　are　to　liberty　what　primary　schools　are　to　science；　they　bring　it　within　the　people's　reach；　they　teach　men　how　to　use　and　how　to　enjoy　it。　　A　nation　may　establish　a　system　of　free　government；　but　without　the　spirit　of　municipal　institutions　it　cannot　have　the　spirit　of　liberty。　　The　transient　passions　and　the　interests　of　an　hour；　or　the　chance　of　circumstances；　may　have　created　the　external　forms　of　independence；　but　the　despotic　tendency　which　has　been　repelled　will；　sooner　or　later；　inevitably　reappear　on　the　surface。
  In　order　to　explain　to　the　reader　the　general　principles　on　which　the　political　organization　of　the　counties　and　townships　of　the　United　States　rests；　I　have　thought　it　expedient　to　choose　one　of　the　States　of　New　England　as　an　example；　to　examine　the　mechanism　of　its　constitution；　and　then　to　cast　a　general　glance　over　the　country。　　The　township　and　the　county　are　not　organized　in　the　same　manner　in　every　part　of　the　Union；　it　is；　however；　easy　to　perceive　that　the　same　principles　have　guided　the　formation　of　both　of　them　throughout　the　Union。　　I　am　inclined　to　believe　that　these　principles　have　been　carried　further　in　New　England　than　elsewhere；　and　consequently　that　they　offer　greater　facilities　to　the　observations　of　a　stranger。　　The　institutions　of　New　England　form　a　complete　and　regular　whole；　they　have　received　the　sanction　of　time；　they　have　the　support　of　the　laws；　and　the　still　stronger　support　of　the　manners　of　the　community；　over　which　they　exercise　the　most　prodigious　influence；　they　consequently　deserve　our　attention　on　every　account。
  Limits　Of　The　Township
  The　township　of　New　England　is　a　division　which　stands　between　the　commune　and　the　canton　of　France；　and　which　corresponds　in　general　to　the　English　tithing；　or　town。　　Its　average　population　is　from　two　to　three　thousand；　*a　so　that；　on　the　one　hand；　the　interests　of　its　inhabitants　are　not　likely　to　conflict；　and；　on　the　other；　men　capable　of　conducting　its　affairs　are　always　to　be　found　among　its　citizens。
  ＇Footnote　a：　In　1830　there　were　305　townships　in　the　State　of　Massachusetts；　and　610；014　inhabitants；　which　gives　an　average　of　about　2；000　inhabitants　to　each　township。＇
  Authorities　Of　The　Township　In　New　England
  The　people　the　source　of　all　power　here　as　elsewhere　…　Manages　its　own　affairs　…　No　corporation　…　The　greater　part　of　the　authority　vested　in　the　hands　of　the　Selectmen　…　How　the　Selectmen　act　…　Town…meeting　…　Enumeration　of　the　public　officers　of　the　township　…　　Obligatory　and　remunerated　functions。
  In　the　township；　as　well　as　everywhere　else；　the　people　is　the　only　source　of　power；　but　in　no　stage　of　government　does　the　body　of　citizens　exercise　a　more　immediate　influence。　　In　America　the　people　is　a　master　whose　exigencies　demand　obedience　to　the　utmost　limits　of　possibility。
  In　New　England　the　majority　acts　by　representatives　in　the　conduct　of　the　public　business　of　the　State；　but　if　such　an　arrangement　be　necessary　in　general　affairs；　in　the　townships；　where　the　legislative　and　administrative　action　of　the　government　is　in　more　immediate　contact　with　the　subject；　the　system　of　representation　is　not　adopted。　　There　is　no　corporation；　but　the　body　of　electors；　after　having　designated　its　magistrates；　directs　them　in　everything　that　exceeds　the　simple　and　ordinary　executive　business　of　the　State。　*b
  ＇Footnote　b：　The　same　rules　are　not　applicable　to　the　great　towns；　which　generally　have　a　mayor；　and　a　corporation　divided　into　two　bodies；　this；　however；　is　an　exception　which　requires　the　sanction　of　a　law。　…　See　the　Act　of　February　22；　1822；　for　appointing　the　authorities　of　the　city　of　Boston。　It　frequently　happens　that　small　towns　as　well　as　cities　are　subject　to　a　peculiar　administration。　　In　1832；　104　townships　in　the　State　of　New　York　were　governed　in　this　manner。　…　Williams'　Register。＇
  This　state　of　things　is　so　contrary　to　our　ideas；　and　so　different　from　our　customs；　that　it　is　necessary　for　me　to　adduce　some　examples　to　explain　it　thoroughly。
  The　public　duties　in　the　township　are　extremely　numerous　and　minutely　divided；　as　we　shall　see　further　on；　but　the　larger　proportion　of　administrative　power　is　vested　in　the　hands　of　a　small　number　of　individuals；　called　〃the　Selectmen。〃　*c　The　general　laws　of　the　State　impose　a　certain　number　of　obligations　on　the　selectmen；　which　they　may　fulfil　without　the　authorization　of　the　body　they　represent；　but　which　they　can　only　neglect　on　their　own　responsibility。　　The　law　of　the　State　obliges　them；　for　instance；　to　draw　up　the　list　of　electors　in　their　townships；　and　if　they　omit　this　part　of　their　functions；　they　are　guilty　of　a　misdemeanor。　　In　all　the　affairs；　however；　which　are　determined　by　the　town…meeting；　the　selectmen　are　the　organs　of　the　popular　mandate；　as　in　France　the　Maire　executes　the　decree　of　the　municipal　council。　　They　usually　act　upon　their　own　responsibility；　and　merely　put　in　practice　principles　which　have　been　previously　recognized　by　the　majority。　　But　if　any　change　is　to　be　introduced　in　the　existing　state　of　things；　or　if　they　wish　to　undertake　any　new　enterprise；　they　are　obliged　to　refer　to　the　source　of　their　power。　　If；　for　instance；　a　school　is　to　be　established；　the　selectmen　convoke　the　whole　body　of　the　electors　on　a　certain　day　at　an　appointed　place；　they　explain　the　urgency　of　the　case；　they　give　their　opinion　on　the　means　of　satisfying　it；　on　the　probable　expense；　and　the　site　which　seems　to　be　most　favorable。　　The　meeting　is　consulted　on　these　several　points；　it　adopts　the　principle；　marks　out　the　site；　votes　the　rate；　and　confides　the　execution　of　its　resolution　to　the　selectmen。
  ＇Footnote　c：　Three　selectmen　are　appointed　in　the　small　townships；　and　nine　in　the　large　ones。　　See　〃The　Town…Officer；〃　p。　186。　　See　also　the　principal　laws　of　the　State　of　Massachusetts　relative　to　the　selectmen：
  Act　of　February　20；　1786；　vol。　i。　p。　219；　February　24；　1796；　v