＇Footnote　x：　By　the　penal　law　of　Massachusetts；　any　Catholic　priest　who　should　set　foot　in　the　colony　after　having　been　once　driven　out　of　it　was　liable　to　capital　punishment。＇
  ＇Footnote　y：　Code　of　1650；　p。　96。＇
  ＇Footnote　z：　〃New　England's　Memorial；〃　p。　316。　　See　Appendix；　E。＇
  These　errors　are　no　doubt　discreditable　to　human　reason；　they　attest　the　inferiority　of　our　nature；　which　is　incapable　of　laying　firm　hold　upon　what　is　true　and　just；　and　is　often　reduced　to　the　alternative　of　two　excesses。　In　strict　connection　with　this　penal　legislation；　which　bears　such　striking　marks　of　a　narrow　sectarian　spirit；　and　of　those　religious　passions　which　had　been　warmed　by　persecution　and　were　still　fermenting　among　the　people；　a　body　of　political　laws　is　to　be　found；　which；　though　written　two　hundred　years　ago；　is　still　ahead　of　the　liberties　of　our　age。　　The　general　principles　which　are　the　groundwork　of　modern　constitutions　…　principles　which　were　imperfectly　known　in　Europe；　and　not　completely　triumphant　even　in　Great　Britain；　in　the　seventeenth　century　…　were　all　recognized　and　determined　by　the　laws　of　New　England：　the　intervention　of　the　people　in　public　affairs；　the　free　voting　of　taxes；　the　responsibility　of　authorities；　personal　liberty；　and　trial　by　jury；　were　all　positively　established　without　discussion。　　From　these　fruitful　principles　consequences　have　been　derived　and　applications　have　been　made　such　as　no　nation　in　Europe　has　yet　ventured　to　attempt。
  In　Connecticut　the　electoral　body　consisted；　from　its　origin；　of　the　whole　number　of　citizens；　and　this　is　readily　to　be　understood；　*a　when　we　recollect　that　this　people　enjoyed　an　almost　perfect　equality　of　fortune；　and　a　still　greater　uniformity　of　opinions。　*b　In　Connecticut；　at　this　period；　all　the　executive　functionaries　were　elected；　including　the　Governor　of　the　State。　*c　The　citizens　above　the　age　of　sixteen　were　obliged　to　bear　arms；　they　formed　a　national　militia；　which　appointed　its　own　officers；　and　was　to　hold　itself　at　all　times　in　readiness　to　march　for　the　defence　of　the　country。　*d
  ＇Footnote　a：　Constitution　of　1638；　p。　17。＇
  ＇Footnote　b：　In　1641　the　General　Assembly　of　Rhode　Island　unanimously　declared　that　the　government　of　the　State　was　a　democracy；　and　that　the　power　was　vested　in　the　body　of　free　citizens；　who　alone　had　the　right　to　make　the　laws　and　to　watch　their　execution。　…　Code　of　1650；　p。　70。＇
  ＇Footnote　c：　〃Pitkin's　History；〃　p。　47。＇
  ＇Footnote　d：　Constitution　of　1638；　p。　12。＇
  In　the　laws　of　Connecticut；　as　well　as　in　all　those　of　New　England；　we　find　the　germ　and　gradual　development　of　that　township　independence　which　is　the　life　and　mainspring　of　American　liberty　at　the　present　day。　　The　political　existence　of　the　majority　of　the　nations　of　Europe　commenced　in　the　superior　ranks　of　society；　and　was　gradually　and　imperfectly　communicated　to　the　different　members　of　the　social　body。　　In　America；　on　the　other　hand；　it　may　be　said　that　the　township　was　organized　before　the　county；　the　county　before　the　State；　the　State　before　the　Union。　　In　New　England　townships　were　completely　and　definitively　constituted　as　early　as　1650。　　The　independence　of　the　township　was　the　nucleus　round　which　the　local　interests；　passions；　rights；　and　duties　collected　and　clung。　　It　gave　scope　to　the　activity　of　a　real　political　life　most　thoroughly　democratic　and　republican。　　The　colonies　still　recognized　the　supremacy　of　the　mother…country；　monarchy　was　still　the　law　of　the　State；　but　the　republic　was　already　established　in　every　township。　The　towns　named　their　own　magistrates　of　every　kind；　rated　themselves；　and　levied　their　own　taxes。　*e　In　the　parish　of　New　England　the　law　of　representation　was　not　adopted；　but　the　affairs　of　the　community　were　discussed；　as　at　Athens；　in　the　market…place；　by　a　general　assembly　of　the　citizens。
  ＇Footnote　e：　Code　of　1650；　p。　80。＇
  In　studying　the　laws　which　were　promulgated　at　this　first　era　of　the　American　republics；　it　is　impossible　not　to　be　struck　by　the　remarkable　acquaintance　with　the　science　of　government　and　the　advanced　theory　of　legislation　which　they　display。　　The　ideas　there　formed　of　the　duties　of　society　towards　its　members　are　evidently　much　loftier　and　more　comprehensive　than　those　of　the　European　legislators　at　that　time：　obligations　were　there　imposed　which　were　elsewhere　slighted。　　In　the　States　of　New　England；　from　the　first；　the　condition　of　the　poor　was　provided　for；　*f　strict　measures　were　taken　for　the　maintenance　of　roads；　and　surveyors　were　appointed　to　attend　to　them；　*g　registers　were　established　in　every　parish；　in　which　the　results　of　public　deliberations；　and　the　births；　deaths；　and　marriages　of　the　citizens　were　entered；　*h　clerks　were　directed　to　keep　these　registers；　*i　officers　were　charged　with　the　administration　of　vacant　inheritances；　and　with　the　arbitration　of　litigated　landmarks；　and　many　others　were　created　whose　chief　functions　were　the　maintenance　of　public　order　in　the　community。　*j　The　law　enters　into　a　thousand　useful　provisions　for　a　number　of　social　wants　which　are　at　present　very　inadequately　felt　in　France。　　＇Footnote　f：　Ibid。；　p。　78。＇
  ＇Footnote　g：　Ibid。；　p。　49。＇
  ＇Footnote　h：　See　〃Hutchinson's　History；〃　vol。　i。　p。　455。＇
  ＇Footnote　i：　Code　of　1650；　p。　86。＇
  ＇Footnote　j：　Ibid。；　p。　40。＇
  But　it　is　by　the　attention　it　pays　to　Public　Education　that　the　original　character　of　American　civilization　is　at　once　placed　in　the　clearest　light。　〃It　being；〃　says　the　law；　〃one　chief　project　of　Satan　to　keep　men　from　the　knowledge　of　the　Scripture　by　persuading　from　the　use　of　tongues；　to　the　end　that　learning　may　not　be　buried　in　the　graves　of　our　forefathers；　in　church　and　commonwealth；　the　Lord　assisting　our　endeavors。　。　。　。〃　*k　Here　follow　clauses　establishing　schools　in　every　township；　and　obliging　the　inhabitants；　under　pain　of　heavy　fines；　to　support　them。　　Schools　of　a　superior　kind　were　founded　in　the　same　manner　in　the　more　populous　districts。　　The　municipal　authorities　were　bound　to　enforce　the　sending　of　children　to　school　by　their　parents；　they　were　empowered　to　inflict　fines　upon　all　who　refused　compliance；　and　in　case　of　continued　resistance　society　assumed　the　place　of　the　parent；　took　possession　of　the　child；　and　deprived　the　father　of　those　natural　rights　which　he　used　to　so　bad　a　purpose。　　The　reader　will　undoubtedly　have　remarked　the　preamble　of　these　enactments：　in　America　religion　is　the　road　to　knowledge；　and　the　observance　of　the　divine　laws　leads　man　to　civil　freedom。
  ＇Footnote　k：　Ibid。；　p。　90。＇
  If；　after　having　cast　a　rapid　glance　over　the　state　of　American　society　in　1650；　we　turn　to　the　condition　of　Europe；　and　more　especially　to　that　of　the　Continent；　at　the　same　period；　we　cannot　fail　to　be　struck　with　astonishment。　　On　the　Continent　of　Europe；　at　the　beginning　of　the　seventeenth　century；　absolute　monarchy　had　everywhere　triumphed　over　the　ruins　of　the　oligarchical　and　feudal　liberties　of　the　Middle　Ages。　　Never　were　the　notions　of　right　more　completely　confounded　than　in　the　midst　of　the　splendor　and　literature　of　Europe；　never　was　there　less　political　activity　among　the　people；　never　were　the　principles　of　true　freedom　less　widely　circulated；　and　at　that　very　time　those　principles；　which　were　scorned　or　unknown　by　the　nations　of　Europe；　were　proclaimed　in　the　deserts　of　the　New　World；　and　were　accepted　as　the　future　creed　of　a　great　people。　　The　boldest　theories　of　the　human　reason　were　put　into　practice　by　a　community　so　humble　that　not　a　statesman　condescended　to　attend　to　it；　and　a　legislation　without　a　precedent　was　produced　offhand　by　the　imagination　of　the　citizens。　　In　the　bosom　of　this　obscure　democracy；　which　had　as　yet　brought　forth　neither　generals；　nor　philosophers；　nor　authors；　a　man　might　stand　up　in　the　face　of　a　free　people　and　pronounce　the　following　fine　definition　of　liberty。　*l
  ＇Footnote　l：　Mather's　〃Magnalia　Christi　Americana；〃　vol。　ii。　p。　13。　　This　speech　was　made　by　Winthrop；　he　was　accused　of　having　committed　arbitrary　actions　during　his　magistracy；　but　after　having　made　the　speech　of　which　the　above　is　a　fragment；　he　was　acquitted　by　acclamation；　and　from　that　time　forwards　he　was　always　re…　elected　governor　of　the　State。　　See　Marshal；　vol。　i。　p。　166。＇
  〃Nor　would　I　have　you　to　mistake　in　the　point　of　your　own　liberty。　There　is　a　liberty　of　a　corrupt　nature　which　is　effected　both　by　men　and　beasts　to　do　what　they　list；　and　this　liberty　is　inconsistent　with　authority；　impatient　of　all　restraint；　by　this　liberty　'sumus　omnes　deteriores'：　'tis　the　grand　enemy　of　truth　and　peace；　and　all　the　ordinances　of　God　are　bent　against　it。　But　there　is　a　civil；　a　moral；　a　federal　liberty　which　is　the　proper　end　and　object　of　authority；　it　is　a　liberty　for　that　only　which　is　just　and　good：　for　this　liberty　you　are　to　stand　with　the　hazard　of　your　very　lives　and　whatsoever　crosses　it　is　not　authority；　but　a　distemper　thereof。　This　liberty　is　maintained　in　a　way　of　subjection　to　authority；　and　the　authority　set　over　you　will；　in　all　administrations　for　your　good；　be　quietly　submitted　unto　by　all　but　such　as　have　a　disposition　to　shake　off　the　yoke　and　lose　their　true　liberty；　by　their　murmuring　at　the　honor　and　power　of