y　ocean　washed　its　shores。　　It　was　girt　round　by　a　belt　of　granite　rocks；　or　by　wide　tracts　of　sand。　　The　foliage　of　its　woods　was　dark　and　gloomy；　for　they　were　composed　of　firs；　larches；　evergreen　oaks；　wild　olive…trees；　and　laurels。　Beyond　this　outer　belt　lay　the　thick　shades　of　the　central　forest；　where　the　largest　trees　which　are　produced　in　the　two　hemispheres　grow　side　by　side。　The　plane；　the　catalpa；　the　sugar…　maple；　and　the　Virginian　poplar　mingled　their　branches　with　those　of　the　oak；　the　beech；　and　the　lime。　　In　these；　as　in　the　forests　of　the　Old　World；　destruction　was　perpetually　going　on。　　The　ruins　of　vegetation　were　heaped　upon　each　other；　but　there　was　no　laboring　hand　to　remove　them；　and　their　decay　was　not　rapid　enough　to　make　room　for　the　continual　work　of　reproduction。　　Climbing　plants；　grasses；　and　other　herbs　forced　their　way　through　the　mass　of　dying　trees；　they　crept　along　their　bending　trunks；　found　nourishment　in　their　dusty　cavities；　and　a　passage　beneath　the　lifeless　bark。　　Thus　decay　gave　its　assistance　to　life；　and　their　respective　productions　were　mingled　together。　　The　depths　of　these　forests　were　gloomy　and　obscure；　and　a　thousand　rivulets；　undirected　in　their　course　by　human　industry；　preserved　in　them　a　constant　moisture。　　It　was　rare　to　meet　with　flowers；　wild　fruits；　or　birds　beneath　their　shades。　　The　fall　of　a　tree　overthrown　by　age；　the　rushing　torrent　of　a　cataract；　the　lowing　of　the　buffalo；　and　the　howling　of　the　wind　were　the　only　sounds　which　broke　the　silence　of　nature。
  To　the　east　of　the　great　river；　the　woods　almost　disappeared；　in　their　stead　were　seen　prairies　of　immense　extent。　　Whether　Nature　in　her　infinite　variety　had　denied　the　germs　of　trees　to　these　fertile　plains；　or　whether　they　had　once　been　covered　with　forests；　subsequently　destroyed　by　the　hand　of　man；　is　a　question　which　neither　tradition　nor　scientific　research　has　been　able　to　resolve。
  These　immense　deserts　were　not；　however；　devoid　of　human　inhabitants。　Some　wandering　tribes　had　been　for　ages　scattered　among　the　forest　shades　or　the　green　pastures　of　the　prairie。　　From　the　mouth　of　the　St。　Lawrence　to　the　delta　of　the　Mississippi；　and　from　the　Atlantic　to　the　Pacific　Ocean；　these　savages　possessed　certain　points　of　resemblance　which　bore　witness　of　their　common　origin；　but　at　the　same　time　they　differed　from　all　other　known　races　of　men：　*g　they　were　neither　white　like　the　Europeans；　nor　yellow　like　most　of　the　Asiatics；　nor　black　like　the　negroes。　　Their　skin　was　reddish　brown；　their　hair　long　and　shining；　their　lips　thin；　and　their　cheekbones　very　prominent。　The　languages　spoken　by　the　North　American　tribes　are　various　as　far　as　regarded　their　words；　but　they　were　subject　to　the　same　grammatical　rules。　These　rules　differed　in　several　points　from　such　as　had　been　observed　to　govern　the　origin　of　language。　　The　idiom　of　the　Americans　seemed　to　be　the　product　of　new　combinations；　and　bespoke　an　effort　of　the　understanding　of　which　the　Indians　of　our　days　would　be　incapable。　*h
  ＇Footnote　g：　With　the　progress　of　discovery　some　resemblance　has　been　found　to　exist　between　the　physical　conformation；　the　language；　and　the　habits　of　the　Indians　of　North　America；　and　those　of　the　Tongous；　Mantchous；　Mongols；　Tartars；　and　other　wandering　tribes　of　Asia。　　The　land　occupied　by　these　tribes　is　not　very　distant　from　Behring's　Strait；　which　allows　of　the　supposition；　that　at　a　remote　period　they　gave　inhabitants　to　the　desert　continent　of　America。　　But　this　is　a　point　which　has　not　yet　been　clearly　elucidated　by　science。　　See　Malte　Brun；　vol。　v。；　the　works　of　Humboldt；　Fischer；　〃Conjecture　sur　l'Origine　des　Americains〃；　Adair；　〃History　of　the　American　Indians。〃＇
  ＇Footnote　h：　See　Appendix；　C。＇
  The　social　state　of　these　tribes　differed　also　in　many　respects　from　all　that　was　seen　in　the　Old　World。　　They　seemed　to　have　multiplied　freely　in　the　midst　of　their　deserts　without　coming　in　contact　with　other　races　more　civilized　than　their　own。　　Accordingly；　they　exhibited　none　of　those　indistinct；　incoherent　notions　of　right　and　wrong；　none　of　that　deep　corruption　of　manners；　which　is　usually　joined　with　ignorance　and　rudeness　among　nations　which；　after　advancing　to　civilization；　have　relapsed　into　a　state　of　barbarism。　　The　Indian　was　indebted　to　no　one　but　himself；　his　virtues；　his　vices；　and　his　prejudices　were　his　own　work；　he　had　grown　up　in　the　wild　independence　of　his　nature。
  If；　in　polished　countries；　the　lowest　of　the　people　are　rude　and　uncivil；　it　is　not　merely　because　they　are　poor　and　ignorant；　but　that；　being　so；　they　are　in　daily　contact　with　rich　and　enlightened　men。　　The　sight　of　their　own　hard　lot　and　of　their　weakness；　which　is　daily　contrasted　with　the　happiness　and　power　of　some　of　their　fellow…creatures；　excites　in　their　hearts　at　the　same　time　the　sentiments　of　anger　and　of　fear：　the　consciousness　of　their　inferiority　and　of　their　dependence　irritates　while　it　humiliates　them。　　This　state　of　mind　displays　itself　in　their　manners　and　language；　they　are　at　once　insolent　and　servile。　　The　truth　of　this　is　easily　proved　by　observation；　the　people　are　more　rude　in　aristocratic　countries　than　elsewhere；　in　opulent　cities　than　in　rural　districts。　　In　those　places　where　the　rich　and　powerful　are　assembled　together　the　weak　and　the　indigent　feel　themselves　oppressed　by　their　inferior　condition。　　Unable　to　perceive　a　single　chance　of　regaining　their　equality；　they　give　up　to　despair；　and　allow　themselves　to　fall　below　the　dignity　of　human　nature。
  This　unfortunate　effect　of　the　disparity　of　conditions　is　not　observable　in　savage　life：　the　Indians；　although　they　are　ignorant　and　poor；　are　equal　and　free。　　At　the　period　when　Europeans　first　came　among　them　the　natives　of　North　America　were　ignorant　of　the　value　of　riches；　and　indifferent　to　the　enjoyments　which　civilized　man　procures　to　himself　by　their　means。　Nevertheless　there　was　nothing　coarse　in　their　demeanor；　they　practised　an　habitual　reserve　and　a　kind　of　aristocratic　politeness。　　Mild　and　hospitable　when　at　peace；　though　merciless　in　war　beyond　any　known　degree　of　human　ferocity；　the　Indian　would　expose　himself　to　die　of　hunger　in　order　to　succor　the　stranger　who　asked　admittance　by　night　at　the　door　of　his　hut；　yet　he　could　tear　in　pieces　with　his　hands　the　still　quivering　limbs　of　his　prisoner。　The　famous　republics　of　antiquity　never　gave　examples　of　more　unshaken　courage；　more　haughty　spirits；　or　more　intractable　love　of　independence　than　were　hidden　in　former　times　among　the　wild　forests　of　the　New　World。　*i　The　Europeans　produced　no　great　impression　when　they　landed　upon　the　shores　of　North　America；　their　presence　engendered　neither　envy　nor　fear。　What　influence　could　they　possess　over　such　men　as　we　have　described？　　The　Indian　could　live　without　wants；　suffer　without　complaint；　and　pour　out　his　death…song　at　the　stake。　*j　Like　all　the　other　members　of　the　great　human　family；　these　savages　believed　in　the　existence　of　a　better　world；　and　adored　under　different　names；　God；　the　creator　of　the　universe。　　Their　notions　on　the　great　intellectual　truths　were　in　general　simple　and　philosophical。　*k
  ＇Footnote　i：　We　learn　from　President　Jefferson's　〃Notes　upon　Virginia；〃　p。　148；　that　among　the　Iroquois；　when　attacked　by　a　superior　force；　aged　men　refused　to　fly　or　to　survive　the　destruction　of　their　country；　and　they　braved　death　like　the　ancient　Romans　when　their　capital　was　sacked　by　the　Gauls。　Further　on；　p。　150；　he　tells　us　that　there　is　no　example　of　an　Indian　who；　having　fallen　into　the　hands　of　his　enemies；　begged　for　his　life；　on　the　contrary；　the　captive　sought　to　obtain　death　at　the　hands　of　his　conquerors　by　the　use　of　insult　and　provocation。＇
  ＇Footnote　j：　See　〃Histoire　de　la　Louisiane；〃　by　Lepage　Dupratz；　Charlevoix；　〃Histoire　de　la　Nouvelle　France〃；　〃Lettres　du　Rev。　G。　Hecwelder；〃　〃Transactions　of　the　American　Philosophical　Society；〃　v。　I；　Jefferson's　〃Notes　on　Virginia；〃　pp。　135…190。　　What　is　said　by　Jefferson　is　of　especial　weight；　on　account　of　the　personal　merit　of　the　writer；　of　his　peculiar　position；　and　of　the　matter…　of…fact　age　in　which　he　lived。＇
  ＇Footnote　k：　See　Appendix；　D。＇
  Although　we　have　here　traced　the　character　of　a　primitive　people；　yet　it　cannot　be　doubted　that　another　people；　more　civilized　and　more　advanced　in　all　respects；　had　preceded　it　in　the　same　regions。
  An　obscure　tradition　which　prevailed　among　the　Indians　to　the　north　of　the　Atlantic　informs　us　that　these　very　tribes　formerly　dwelt　on　the　west　side　of　the　Mississippi。　　Along　the　banks　of　the　Ohio；　and　throughout　the　central　valley；　there　are　frequently　found；　at　this　day；　tumuli　raised　by　the　hands　of　men。　　On　exploring　these　heaps　of　earth　to　their　centre；　it　is　usual　to　meet　with　human　bones；　strange　instruments；　arms　and　utensils　of　all　kinds；　made　of　metal；　or　destined　for　purposes　unknown　to　the　present　race。　The　Indians　of　our　time　are　unable　to　give　any　information　relative　to　the　history　of　this　unknown　people。　　Neither　did　those　who　lived　three　hundred　years　ago；　when　America　was　first　discovered；　leave　any　accounts　from　which　even　an　hypothesis　could　be　formed。　　Tradition　…　that　perishable；　yet　ever　renewed　monument　of　the　pristine　world