trade　of　a　soldier　to　whatever　other　trade　or　profession　they　may
  happen　to　carry　on。
  Or；　secondly；　by　maintaining　and　employing　a　certain　number
  of　citizens　in　the　constant　practice　of　military　exercises；　it
  may　render　the　trade　of　a　soldier　a　particular　trade；　separate
  and　distinct　from　all　others。
  If　the　state　has　recourse　to　the　first　of　those　two
  expedients；　its　military　force　is　said　to　consist　in　a　militia；
  if　to　the　second；　it　is　said　to　consist　in　a　standing　army。　The
  practice　of　military　exercises　is　the　sole　or　principal
  occupation　of　the　soldiers　of　a　standing　army；　and　the
  maintenance　or　pay　which　the　state　affords　them　is　the　principal
  and　ordinary　fund　of　their　subsistence。　The　practice　of　military
  exercises　is　only　the　occasional　occupation　of　the　soldiers　of　a
  militia；　and　they　derive　the　principal　and　ordinary　fund　of　their
  subsistence　from　some　other　occupation。　In　a　militia；　the
  character　of　the　labourer；　artificer；　or　tradesman；　predominates
  over　that　of　the　soldier；　in　a　standing　army；　that　of　the　soldier
  predominates　over　every　other　character：　and　in　this　distinction
  seems　to　consist　the　essential　difference　between　those　two
  different　species　of　military　force。
  Militias　have　been　of　several　different　kinds。　In　some
  countries　the　citizens　destined　for　defending　the　states　seem　to
  have　been　exercised　only；　without　being；　if　I　may　say　so；
  regimented；　that　is；　without　being　divided　into　separate　and
  distinct　bodies　of　troops；　each　of　which　performed　its　exercises
  under　its　own　proper　and　permanent　officers。　In　the　republics　of
  ancient　Greece　and　Rome；　each　citizen；　as　long　as　he　remained　at
  home；　seems　to　have　practised　his　exercises　either　separately　and
  independently；　or　with　such　of　his　equals　as　he　liked　best；　and
  not　to　have　been　attached　to　any　particular　body　of　troops　till
  he　was　actually　called　upon　to　take　the　field。　In　other
  countries；　the　militia　has　not　only　been　exercised；　but
  regimented。　In　England；　in　Switzerland；　and；　I　believe；　in　every
  other　country　of　modern　Europe　where　any　imperfect　military　force
  of　this　kind　has　been　established；　every　militiaman　is；　even　in
  time　of　peace；　attached　to　a　particular　body　of　troops；　which
  performs　its　exercises　under　its　own　proper　and　permanent
  officers。
  Before　the　invention　of　firearms；　that　army　was　superior　in
  which　the　soldiers　had；　each　individually；　the　greatest　skill　and
  dexterity　in　the　use　of　their　arms。　Strength　and　agility　of　body
  were　of　the　highest　consequence；　and　commonly　determined　the
  state　of　battles。　But　this　skill　and　dexterity　in　the　use　of
  their　arms　could　be　acquired　only；　in　the　same　manner　as　fencing
  is　at　present；　by　practising；　not　in　great　bodies；　but　each　man
  separately；　in　a　particular　school；　under　a　particular　master；　or
  with　his　own　particular　equals　and　companions。　Since　the
  invention　of　firearms；　strength　and　agility　of　body；　or　even
  extraordinary　dexterity　and　skill　in　the　use　of　arms；　though　they
  are　far　from　being　of　no　consequence；　are；　however；　of　less
  consequence。　The　nature　of　the　weapon；　though　it　by　no　means　puts
  the　awkward　upon　a　level　with　the　skilful；　puts　him　more　nearly
  so　than　he　ever　was　before。　All　the　dexterity　and　skill；　it　is
  supposed；　which　are　necessary　for　using　it；　can　be　well　enough
  acquired　by　practising　in　great　bodies。
  Regularity；　order；　and　prompt　obedience　to　command　are
  qualities　which；　in　modern　armies；　are　of　more　importance　towards
  determining　the　fate　of　battles　than　the　dexterity　and　skill　of
  the　soldiers　in　the　use　of　their　arms。　But　the　noise　of　firearms；
  the　smoke；　and　the　invisible　death　to　which　every　man　feels
  himself　every　moment　exposed　as　soon　as　he　comes　within
  cannon…shot；　and　frequently　a　long　time　before　the　battle　can　be
  well　said　to　be　engaged；　must　render　it　very　difficult　to
  maintain　any　considerable　degree　of　this　regularity；　order；　and
  prompt　obedience；　even　in　the　beginning　of　a　modern　battle。　In　an
  ancient　battle　there　was　no　noise　but　what　arose　from　the　human
  voice；　there　was　no　smoke；　there　was　no　invisible　cause　of　wounds
  or　death。　Every　man；　till　some　mortal　weapon　actually　did
  approach　him；　saw　clearly　that　no　such　weapon　was　near　him。　In
  these　circumstances；　and　among　troops　who　had　some　confidence　in
  their　own　skill　and　dexterity　in　the　use　of　their　arms；　it　must
  have　been　a　good　deal　less　difficult　to　preserve　some　degree
  regularity　and　order；　not　only　in　the　beginning；　but　through　the
  whole　progress　of　an　ancient　battle；　and　till　one　of　the　two
  armies　was　fairly　defeated。　But　the　habits　of　regularity；　order；
  and　prompt　obedience　to　command　can　be　acquired　only　by　troops
  which　are　exercised　in　great　bodies。
  A　militia；　however；　in　whatever　manner　it　may　be　either
  disciplined　or　exercised；　must　always　be　much　inferior　to　a
  well…disciplined　and　well…exercised　standing　army。
  The　soldiers　who　are　exercised　only　once　a　week；　or　once　a
  month；　can　never　be　so　expert　in　the　use　of　their　arms　as　those
  who　are　exercised　every　day；　or　every　other　day；　and　though　this
  circumstance　may　not　be　of　so　much　consequence　in　modern　as　it
  was　in　ancient　times；　yet　the　acknowledged　superiority　of　the
  Prussian　troops；　owing；　it　is　said；　very　much　to　their　superior
  expertness　in　their　exercise；　may　satisfy　us　that　it　is；　even　at
  this　day；　of　very　considerable　consequence。
  The　soldiers　who　are　bound　to　obey　their　officer　only　once　a
  week　or　once　a　month；　and　who　are　at　all　other　times　at　liberty
  to　manage　their　own　affairs　their　own　way；　without　being　in　any
  respect　accountable　to　him；　can　never　be　under　the　same　awe　in
  his　presence；　can　never　have　the　same　disposition　to　ready
  obedience；　with　those　whose　whole　life　and　conduct　are　every　day
  directed　by　him；　and　who　every　day　even　rise　and　go　to　bed；　or　at
  least　retire　to　their　quarters；　according　to　his　orders。　In　what
  is　called　discipline；　or　in　the　habit　of　ready　obedience；　a
  militia　must　always　be　still　more　inferior　to　a　standing　army
  than　it　may　sometimes　be　in　what　is　called　the　manual　exercise；
  or　in　the　management　and　use　of　its　arms。　But　in　modern　war　the
  habit　of　ready　and　instant　obedience　is　of　much　greater
  consequence　than　a　considerable　superiority　in　the　management　of
  arms。
  Those　militias　which；　like　the　Tartar　or　Arab　militia；　go　to
  war　under　the　same　chieftains　whom　they　are　accustomed　to　obey　in
  peace　are　by　far　the　best。　In　respect　for　their　officers；　in　the
  habit　of　ready　obedience；　they　approach　nearest　to　standing
  armies。　The　highland　militia；　when　it　served　under　its　own
  chieftains；　had　some　advantage　of　the　same　kind。　As　the
  highlanders；　however；　were　not　wandering；　but　stationary
  shepherds；　as　they　had　all　a　fixed　habitation；　and　were　not；　in
  peaceable　times；　accustomed　to　follow　their　chieftain　from　place
  to　place；　so　in　time　of　war　they　were　less　willing　to　follow　him
  to　any　considerable　distance；　or　to　continue　for　any　long　time　in
  the　field。　When　they　had　acquired　any　booty　they　were　eager　to
  return　home；　and　his　authority　was　seldom　sufficient　to　detain
  them。　In　point　of　obedience　they　were　always　much　inferior　to
  what　is　reported　of　the　Tartars　and　Arabs。　As　the　highlanders
  too；　from　their　stationary　life；　spend　less　of　their　time　in　the
  open　air；　they　were　always　less　accustomed　to　military　exercises；
  and　were　less　expert　in　the　use　of　their　arms　than　the　Tartars
  and　Arabs　are　said　to　be。
  A　militia　of　any　kind；　it　must　be　observed；　however；　which
  has　served　for　several　successive　campaigns　in　the　field；　becomes
  in　every　respect　a　standing　army。　The　soldiers　are　every　day
  exercised　in　the　use　of　their　arms；　and；　being　constantly　under
  the　command　of　their　officers；　are　habituated　to　the　same　prompt
  obedience　which　takes　place　in　standing　armies。　What　they　were
  before　they　took　the　field　is　of　little　importance。　They
  necessarily　become　in　every　respect　a　standing　army　after　they
  have　passed　a　few　campaigns　in　it。　Should　the　war　in　America　drag
  out　through　another　campaign；　the　American　militia　may　become　in
  every　respect　a　match　for　that　standing　army　of　which　the　valour
  appeared；　in　the　last　war；　at　least　not　inferior　to　that　of　the
  hardiest　veterans　of　France　and　Spain。
  This　distinction　being　well　understood；　the　history　of　all
  ages；　it　will　be　found；　bears　testimony　to　the　irresistible
  superiority　which　a　well…regulated　standing　army　has　over　a
  militia。
  One　of　the　first　standing　armies　of　which　we　have　any
  distinct　account；　in　any　well　authenticated　history；　is　that　of
  Philip　of　Macedon。　His　frequent　wars　with　the　Thracians；
  Illyrians；　Thessalians；　and　some　of　the　Greek　cities　in　the
  neighbourhood　of　Macedon；　gradually　formed　his　troops；　which　in
  the　beginning　were　probably　militia；　to　the　exact　discipline　of　a
  standing　army。　When　he　was　at　peace；　which　he　was　very　seldom；
  and　never　for　any　long　time　together；　h