over　a　series　of　years；　and　were　conducted　at　a　cost　of　several
  thousand　pounds。　　The　first　experiments　were　made　with　vessels　of
  wood；　but　they　eventually　led　to　the　construction　of　iron　vessels
  upon　a　large　scale　and　on　an　entirely　new　principle　of　construction；
  with　angle　iron　ribs　and　wrought…iron　sheathing　plates。　　The　results
  proved　most　valuable；　and　had　the　effect　of　specially　directing　the
  attention　of　naval　engineers　to　the　employment　of　iron　in　ship
  building。
  Mr。　Fairbairn　himself　fully　recognised　the　value　of　the　experiments；
  and　proceeded　to　construct　an　iron　vessel　at　his　works　at　Manchester；
  in　1831；　which　went　to　sea　the　same　year。　　Its　success　was　such　as　to
  induce　him　to　begin　iron　shipbuilding　on　a　large　scale；　at　the　same
  time　as　the　Messrs。　Laird　did　at　Birkenhead；　and　in　1835；　Mr。
  Fairbairn　established　extensive　works　at　Millwall；　on　the
  Thames；afterwards　occupied　by　Mr。　Scott　Russell；　in　whose　yard　the
  〃Great　Eastern〃　steamship　was　erected；　where　in　the　course　of　some
  fourteen　years　he　built　upwards　of　a　hundred　and　twenty　iron　ships；
  some　of　them　above　2000　tons　burden。　　It　was　in　fact　the　first　great
  iron　shipbuilding　yard　in　Britain；　and　led　the　way　in　a　branch　of
  business　which　has　since　become　of　first…rate　magnitude　and
  importance。　　Mr。　Fairbairn　was　a　most　laborious　experimenter　in　iron；
  and　investigated　in　great　detail　the　subject　of　its　strength；　the
  value　of　different　kinds　of　riveted　joints　compared　with　the　solid
  plate；　and　the　distribution　of　the　material　throughout　the　structure；
  as　well　as　the　form　of　the　vessel　itself。　　It　would　indeed　be
  difficult　to　over…estimate　the　value　of　his　investigations　on　these
  points　in　the　earlier　stages　of　this　now　highly　important　branch　of
  the　national　industry。
  To　facilitate　the　manufacture　of　his　iron…sided　ships；　Mr。　Fairbairn；
  about　the　year　1839；　invented　a　machine　for　riveting　boiler　plates　by
  steam…power。　　The　usual　method　by　which　this　process　had　before　been
  executed　was　by　hand…hammers；　worked　by　men　placed　at　each　side　of
  the　plate　to　be　riveted；　acting　simultaneously　on　both　sides　of　the
  bolt。　　But　this　process　was　tedious　and　expensive；　as　well　as　clumsy
  and　imperfect；　and　some　more　rapid　and　precise　method　of　fixing　the
  plates　firmly　together　was　urgently　wanted。　　Mr。　Fairbairn's　machine
  completely　supplied　the　want。　　By　its　means　the　rivet　was　driven　into
  its　place；　and　firmly　fastened　there　by　a　couple　of　strokes　of　a
  hammer　impelled　by　steam。　　Aided　by　the　Jacquard　punching…machine　of
  Roberts；　the　riveting　of　plates　of　the　largest　size　has　thus　become
  one　of　the　simplest　operations　in　iron…manufacturing。
  The　thorough　knowledge　which　Mr。　Fairbairn　possessed　of　the　strength
  of　wrought…iron　in　the　form　of　the　hollow　beam　（which　a　wrought…iron
  ship　really　is）　naturally　led　to　his　being　consulted　by　the　late
  Robert　Stephenson　as　to　the　structures　by　means　of　which　it　was
  proposed　to　span　the　estuary　of　the　Conway　and　the　Straits　of　Menai；
  and　the　result　was　the　Conway　and　Britannia　Tubular　Bridges；　the
  history　of　which　we　have　fully　described　elsewhere。*
  ＇footnote。。。
  Lives　of　the　Engineers；　vol。　iii。　416…40。　　See　also　An　Account　of　the
  Construction　of　the　Britannia　and　Conway　Tubular　Bridges。　　By　William
  Fairbairn；　C。E。　　1849。
  。。。＇
  There　is　no　reason　to　doubt　that　by　far　the　largest　share　of　the
  merit　of　working　out　the　practical　details　of　those　structures；　and
  thus　realizing　Robert　Stephenson's　magnificent　idea　of　the　tubular
  bridge；　belongs　to　Mr。　Fairbairn。
  In　all　matters　connected　with　the　qualities　and　strength　of　iron；　he
  came　to　be　regarded　as　a　first…rate　authority；　and　his　advice　was
  often　sought　and　highly　valued。　　The　elaborate　experiments　instituted
  by　him　as　to　the　strength　of　iron　of　all　kinds　have　formed　the
  subject　of　various　papers　which　he　has　read　before　the　British
  Association；　the　Royal　Society；　and　the　Literary　and　Philosophical
  Society　of　Manchester。　　His　practical　inquries　as　to　the　strength　of
  boilers　have　led　to　his　being　frequently　called　upon　to　investigate
  the　causes　of　boiler　explosions；　on　which　subject　he　has　published
  many　elaborate　reports。　　The　study　of　this　subject　led　him　to
  elucidate　the　law　according　to　which　the　density　of　steam　varies
  throughout　an　extensive　range　of　pressures　and　atmospheres；in
  singular　confirmation　of　what　had　before　been　provisionally
  calculated　from　the　mechanical　theory　of　heat。　　His　discovery　of　the
  true　method　of　preventing　the　tendency　of　tubes　to　collapse；　by
  dividing　the　flues　of　long　boilers　into　short　lengths　by　means　of
  stiffening　rings；　arising　out　of　the　same　investigation；　was　one　of
  the　valuable　results　of　his　minute　study　of　the　subject；　and　is
  calculated　to　be　of　essential　value　in　the　manufacturing　districts　by
  diminishing　the　chances　of　boiler　explosions；　and　saving　the
  lamentable　loss　of　life　which　has　during　the　last　twenty　years　been
  occasioned　by　the　malconstruction　of　boilers。　　Among　Mr。　Fairbairn's
  most　recent；　inquiries　are　those　conducted　by　him　at　the　instance　of
  the　British　Government　relative　to　the　construction　of　iron…plated
  ships；　his　report　of　which　has　not　yet　been　made　public；　most
  probably　for　weighty　political　reasons。
  We　might　also　refer　to　the　practical　improvements　which　Mr。　Fairbairn
  has　been　instrumental　in　introducing　in　the　construction　of　buildings
  of　various　kinds　by　the　use　of　iron。　　He　has　himself　erected　numerous
  iron　structures；　and　pointed　out　the　road　which　other　manufacturers
  have　readily　followed。　　〃I　am　one　of　those；〃　said　he；　in　his　'Lecture
  on　the　Progress　of　Engineering；'　〃who　have　great　faith　in　iron　walls
  and　iron　beams；　and　although　I　have　both　spoken　and　written　much　on
  the　subject；　I　cannot　too　forcibly　recommend　it　to　public　attention。
  It　is　now　twenty　years　since　I　constructed　an　iron　house；　with　the
  machinery　of　a　corn…mill；　for　Halil　Pasha；　then　Seraskier　of　the
  Turkish　army　at　Constantinople。　　I　believe　it　was　the　first　iron　house
  built　in　this　country；　and　it　was　constructed　at　the　works　at
  Millwall；　London；　in　1839。〃*
  ＇footnote。。。
  Useful　Information　for　Engineers；　2nd　series；　225。　　The　mere　list　of
  Mr。　Fairbairn's　writings　would　occupy　considerable　space；　for；
  notwithstanding　his　great　labours　as　an　engineer；　he　has　also　been　an
  industrious　writer。　　His　papers　on　Iron；　read　at　different　times
  before　the　British　Association；　the　Royal　Society；　and　the　Literary
  and　Philosophical　Institution　of　Manchester；　are　of　great　value。　　The
  treatise　on　〃Iron〃　in　the　Encyclopaedia　Britannica　is　from　his　pen；
  and　he　has　contributed　a　highly　interesting　paper　to　Dr。　Scoffern's
  Useful　Metals　and　their　Alloys　on　the　Application　of　Iron　to　the
  purposes　of　Ordnance；　Machinery；　Bridges；　and　House　and　Ship
  Building。　　Another　valuable　but　less…known　contribution　to　Iron
  literature　is　his　Report　on　Machinery　in　General；　published　in　the
  Reports　on　the　Paris　Universal　Exhibition　of　1855。　　The　experiments
  conducted　by　Mr。　Fairbairn　for　the　purpose　of　proving　the　excellent
  properties　of　iron　for　shipbuildingthe　account　of　which　was
  published　in　the　Trans　actions　of　the　Royal　Society　eventually　led　to
  his　further　experiments　to　determine　the　strength　and　form　of　the
  Britannia　and　Conway　Tubular　Bridges；　plate…girders；　and　other
  constructions；　the　result　of　which　was　to　establish　quite　a　new　era
  in　the　history　of　bridge　as　well　as　ship　building。
  。。。＇
  Since　then　iron　structures　of　all　kinds　have　been　erected：　　iron
  lighthouses；　iron…and…crystal　palaces；　iron　churches；　and　iron
  bridges。　　Iron　roads　have　long　been　worked　by　iron　locomotives；　and
  before　many　years　have　passed　a　telegraph　of　iron　wire　will　probably
  be　found　circling　the　globe。　　We　now　use　iron　roofs；　iron　bedsteads；
  iron　ropes；　and　iron　pavement；　and　even　the　famous　〃wooden　walls　of
  England〃　are　rapidly　becoming　reconstructed　of　iron。　　In　short；　we　are
  in　the　midst　of　what　Mr。　Worsaae　has　characterized　as　the　Age　of
  Iron。
  At　the　celebration　of　the　opening　of　the　North　Wales　Railway　at
  Bangor；　almost　within　sight　of　his　iron　bridge　across　the　Straits　of
  Menai；　Robert　Stephenson　said；　〃We　are　daily　producing　from　the
  bowels　of　the　earth　a　raw　material；　in　its　crude　state　apparently　of
  no　worth；　but　which；　when　converted　into　a　locomotive　engine；　flies
  over　bridges　of　the　same　material；　with　a　speed　exceeding　that　of　the
  bird；　advancing　wealth　and　comfort　throughout　the　country。　　Such　are
  the　powers　of　that　all…civilizing　instrument；　Iron。〃
  Iron　indeed　plays　a　highly　important　part　in　modem　civilization。　　Out
  of　it　are　formed　alike　the　sword　and　the　ploughshare；　the　cannon　and
  the　printing…press；　and　while　civilization　continues　partial　and
  half…developed；　as　it　still　is；　our　liberties　and　our　industry　must
  necessarily　in　a　great　measure　depend　for　their　protection　upon　the
  excellence　of　our　weapons　of　war　as　well　as　on　the　superiority　of　our
  i