without　tools　he　is　nothing；　with　tools　he　is　all。〃　　His　very　first
  contrivances　to　support　life　were　tools　of　the　simplest　and　rudest
  construction；　and　his　latest　achievements　in　the　substitution　of
  machinery　for　the　relief　of　the　human　hand　and　intellect　are　founded
  on　the　use　of　tools　of　a　still　higher　order。　　Hence　it　is　not　without
  good　reason　that　man　has　by　some　philosophers　been　defined　as　A
  TOOL…MAKING　ANIMAL。
  Tools；　like　everything　else；　had　small　beginnings。　　With　the　primitive
  stone…hammer　and　chisel　very　little　could　be　done。　　The　felling　of　a
  tree　would　occupy　a　workman　a　month；　unless　helped　by　the　destructive
  action　of　fire。　　Dwellings　could　not　be　built；　the　soil　could　not　be
  tilled；　clothes　could　not　be　fashioned　and　made；　and　the　hewing　out
  of　a　boat　was　so　tedious　a　process　that　the　wood　must　have　been　far
  gone　in　decay　before　it　could　be　launched。　　It　was　a　great　step　in
  advance　to　discover　the　art　of　working　in　metals；　more　especially　in
  steel；　one　of　the　few　metals　capable　of　taking　a　sharp　edge　and
  keeping　it。　　From　the　date　of　this　discovery；　working　in　wood　and
  stone　would　be　found　comparatively　easy；　and　the　results　must
  speedily　have　been　felt　not　only　in　the　improvement　of　man's　daily
  food；　but　in　his　domestic　and　social　condition。　　Clothing　could　then
  be　made；　the　primitive　forest　could　be　cleared　and　tillage　carried
  on；　abundant　fuel　could　be　obtained；　dwellings　erected；　ships　built；
  temples　reared；　every　improvement　in　tools　marking　a　new　step　in　the
  development　of　the　human　intellect；　and　a　further　stage　in　the
  progress　of　human　civilization。
  The　earliest　tools　were　of　the　simplest　possible　character；
  consisting　principally　of　modifications　of　the　wedge；　such　as　the
  knife；　the　shears　（formed　of　two　knives　working　on　a　joint）；　the
  chisel；　and　the　axe。　　These；　with　the　primitive　hammer；　formed　the
  principal　stock…in…trade　of　the　early　mechanics；　who　were
  handicraftsmen　in　the　literal　sense　of　the　word。　　But　the　work　which
  the　early　craftsmen　in　wood；　stone；　brass；　and　iron；　contrived　to
  execute；　sufficed　to　show　how　much　expertness　in　the　handling　of
  tools　will　serve　to　compensate　for　their　mechanical　imperfections。
  Workmen　then　sought　rather　to　aid　muscular　strength　than　to　supersede
  it；　and　mainly　to　facilitate　the　efforts　of　manual　skill。　　Another
  tool　became　added　to　those　mentioned　above；　which　proved　an
  additional　source　of　power　to　the　workman。　　We　mean　the　Saw；　which　was
  considered　of　so　much　importance　that　its　inventor　was　honoured　with
  a　place　among　the　gods　in　the　mythology　of　the　Greeks。　　This　invention
  is　said　to　have　been　suggested　by　the　arrangement　of　the　teeth　in　the
  jaw　of　a　serpent；　used　by　Talus　the　nephew　of　Daedalus　in　dividing　a
  piece　of　wood。　　From　the　representations　of　ancient　tools　found　in　the
  paintings　at　Herculaneum　it　appears　that　the　frame…saw　used　by　the
  ancients　very　nearly　resembled　that　still　in　use；　and　we　are　informed
  that　the　tools　employed　in　the　carpenters'　shops　at　Nazareth　at　this
  day　are　in　most　respects　the　same　as　those　represented　in　the　buried
  Roman　city。　　Another　very　ancient　tool　referred　to　in　the　Bible　and　in
  Homer　was　the　File；　which　was　used　to　sharpen　weapons　and　implements。
  Thus　the　Hebrews　〃had　a　file　for　the　mattocks；　and　for　the　coulters；
  and　for　the　forks；　and　for　the　axes；　and　to　sharpen　the　goads。〃*
  ＇footnote。。。
  1　Samuel；　ch。　xiii。　v。　21。
  。。。＇
  When　to　these　we　add　the　adze；　plane…irons；　the　anger；　and　the
  chisel；　we　sum　up　the　tools　principally　relied　on　by　the　early
  mechanics　for　working　in　wood　and　iron。
  Such　continued　to　be　the　chief　tools　in　use　down　almost　to　our　own
  day。　　The　smith　was　at　first　the　principal　tool…maker；　but　special
  branches　of　trade　were　gradually　established；　devoted　to　tool…making。
  So　long；　however；　as　the　workman　relied　mainly　on　his　dexterity　of
  hand；　the　amount　of　production　was　comparatively　limited；　for　the
  number　of　skilled　workmen　was　but　small。　　The　articles　turned　out　by
  them；　being　the　product　of　tedious　manual　labour；　were　too　dear　to
  come　into　common　use；　and　were　made　almost　exclusively　for　the　richer
  classes　of　the　community。　　It　was　not　until　machinery　had　been
  invented　and　become　generally　adopted　that　many　of　the　ordinary
  articles　of　necessity　and　of　comfort　were　produced　in　sufficient
  abundance　and　at　such　prices　as　enabled　them　to　enter　into　the
  consumption　of　the　great　body　of　the　people。
  But　every　improver　of　tools　had　a　long　and　difficult　battle　to　fight；
  for　any　improvement　in　their　effective　power　was　sure　to　touch　the
  interests　of　some　established　craft。　　Especially　was　this　the　case
  with　machines；　which　are　but　tools　of　a　more　complete　though
  complicated　kind　than　those　above　described。
  Take；　for　instance；　the　case　of　the　Saw。　　The　tedious　drudgery　of
  dividing　timber　by　the　old　fashioned　hand…saw　is　well　known。　　To　avoid
  it；　some　ingenious　person　suggested　that　a　number　of　saws　should　be
  fixed　to　a　frame　in　a　mill；　so　contrived　as　to　work　with　a
  reciprocating　motion；　upwards　and　downwards；　or　backwards　and
  forwards；　and　that　this　frame　so　mounted　should　be　yoked　to　the　mill
  wheel；　and　the　saws　driven　by　the　power　of　wind　or　water。　　The　plan
  was　tried；　and；　as　may　readily　be　imagined；　the　amount　of　effective
  work　done　by　this　machine…saw　was　immense；　compared　with　the　tedious
  process　of　sawing　by　hand。
  It　will　be　observed；　however；　that　the　new　method　must　have　seriously
  interfered　with　the　labour　of　the　hand…sawyers；　and　it　was　but
  natural　that　they　should　regard　the　establishment　of　the　saw…mills
  with　suspicion　and　hostility。　　Hence　a　long　period　elapsed　before　the
  hand…sawyers　would　permit　the　new　machinery　to　be　set　up　and　worked。
  The　first　saw…mill　in　England　was　erected　by　a　Dutchman；　near　London；
  in　1663；　but　was　shortly　abandoned　in　consequence　of　the　determined
  hostility　of　the　workmen。　　More　than　a　century　passed　before　a　second
  saw…mill　was　set　up；　when；　in　1767；　Mr。　John　Houghton；　a　London
  timber…merchant；　by　the　desire　and　with　the　approbation　of　the
  Society　of　Arts；　erected　one　at　Limehouse；　to　be　driven　by　wind。　　The
  work　was　directed　by　one　James　Stansfield；　who　had　gone　over　to
  Holland　for　the　purpose　of　learning　the　art　of　constructing　and
  managing　the　sawing　machinery。　　But　the　mill　was　no　sooner　erected
  than　a　mob　assembled　and　razed　it　to　the　ground。　　The　principal
  rioters　having　been　punished；　and　the　loss　to　the　proprietor　having
  been　made　good　by　the　nation；　a　new　mill　was　shortly　after　built；　and
  it　was　suffered　to　work　without　further　molestation。
  Improved　methods　of　manufacture　have　usually　had　to　encounter　the
  same　kind　of　opposition。　　Thus；　when　the　Flemish　weavers　came　over　to
  England　in　the　seventeenth　century；　bringing　with　them　their　skill
  and　their　industry；　they　excited　great　jealousy　and　hostility　amongst
  the　native　workmen。　　Their　competition　as　workmen　was　resented　as　an
  injury；　but　their　improved　machinery　was　regarded　as　a　far　greater
  source　of　mischief。　　In　a　memorial　presented　to　the　king　in　1621　we
  find　the　London　weavers　complaining　of　the　foreigners'　competition；
  but　especially　that　〃they　have　made　so　bould　of　late　as　to　devise
  engines　for　working　of　tape；　lace；　ribbin；　and　such　like；　wherein　one
  man　doth　more　among　them　than　7　Englishe　men　can　doe；　so　as　their
  cheap　sale　of　commodities　beggereth　all　our　Englishe　artificers　of
  that　trade；　and　enricheth　them。〃*
  ＇footnote。。。
  State　Papers；　Dom。　1621；　Vol。　88；　No。　112。
  。。。＇
  At　a　much　more　recent　period　new　inventions　have　had　to　encounter
  serious　rioting　and　machine…breaking　fury。　　Kay　of　the　fly…shuttle；
  Hargreaves　of　the　spinning…jenny；　and　Arkwright　of　the
  spinning…frame；　all　had　to　fly　from　Lancashire；　glad　to　escape　with
  their　lives。　　Indeed；　says　Mr。　Bazley；　〃so　jealous　were　the　people；
  and　also　the　legislature；　of　everything　calculated　to　supersede　men's
  labour；　that　when　the　Sankey　Canal；　six　miles　long；　near　Warrington；
  was　authorized　about　the　middle　of　last　century；　it　was　on　the
  express　condition　that　the　boats　plying　on　it　should　be　drawn　by　men
  only！〃*
  ＇footnote。。。
  Lectures　on　the　Results　of　the　Great　Exhibition　of　1851；　2nd　Series；
  117。
  。。。＇
  Even　improved　agricultural　tools　and　machines　have　had　the　same
  opposition　to　encounter；　and　in　our　own　time　bands　of　rural　labourers
  have　gone　from　farm　to　farm　breaking　drill…ploughs；　winnowing；
  threshing；　and　other　machines；　down　even　to　the　common　drills；not
  perceiving　that　if　their　policy　had　proved　successful；　and　tools
  could　have　been　effectually　destroyed；　the　human　race　would　at　once
  have　been　reduced　to　their　teeth　and　nails；　and　civilization
  summarily　abolished。*
  ＇footnote。。。
  Dr。　Kirwan；　late　President　of　the　Royal　Irish　Academy；　who　had
  travelled　much　on　the　continent　of　Europe；　used　to　relate；　when
  speaking　of　the　difficulty　of　introducing　improvements　in　the　arts
  and　manufac