copper　by　the　ancients　for　edge…tools　and　warlike　instruments；　does
  not　preclude　the　supposition　that　iron　was　then　comparatively
  plentiful；　though　it　is　probable　that　it　was　confined　to　the　ruder
  arts　of　life。　　A　knowledge　of　the　mixture　of　copper；　tin；　and　zinc；
  seems　to　have　been　among　the　first　discoveries　of　the　metallurgist。
  Instruments　fabricated　from　these　alloys；　recommended　by　the　use　of
  ages；　the　perfection　of　the　art；　the　splendour　and　polish　of　their
  surfaces；　not　easily　injured　by　time　and　weather；　would　not　soon　be
  superseded　by　the　invention　of　simple　iron；　inferior　in　edge　and
  polish；　at　all　times　easily　injured　by　rust；　and　in　the　early　stages
  of　its　manufacture　converted　with　difficulty　into　forms　that　required
  proportion　or　elegance。〃（Papers　on　Iron　and　Steel；　365…6。）　By　some
  secret　method　that　has　been　lost；　perhaps　because　no　longer　needed
  since　the　invention　of　steel；　the　ancients　manufactured　bronze　tools
  capable　of　taking　a　fine　edge。　　in　our　own　time；　Chantrey　the
  sculptor；　in　his　reverence　for　classic　metallurgy；　had　a　bronze　razor
  made　with　which　he　martyred　himself　in　shaving；　but　none　were　found
  so　hardy　and　devoted　as　to　follow　his　example。
  。。。＇
  the　latter　metal　continuing　to　be　employed　only　for　the　purpose　of
  making　scabbards　or　sword…handles。　　Shortly　after　the　commencement　of
  the　iron　age；　the　lake…habitations　were　abandoned；　the　only
  settlement　of　this　later　epoch　yet　discovered　being　that　at　Tene；　on
  Lake　Neufchatel：　　and　it　is　a　remarkable　circumstance；　showing　the
  great　antiquity　of　the　lake…dwellings；　that　they　are　not　mentioned　by
  any　of　the　Roman　historians。
  That　iron　should　have　been　one　of　the　last　of　the　metals　to　come　into
  general　use；　is　partly　accounted　for　by　the　circumstance　that　iron；
  though　one　of　the　most　generally　diffused　of　minerals；　never　presents
  itself　in　a　natural　state；　except　in　meteorites；　and　that　to
  recognise　its　ores；　and　then　to　separate　the　metal　from　its　matrix；
  demands　the　exercise　of　no　small　amount　of　observation　and　invention。
  Persons　unacquainted　with　minerals　would　be　unable　to　discover　the
  slightest　affinity　between　the　rough　ironstone　as　brought　up　from　the
  mine；　and　the　iron　or　steel　of　commerce。　　To　unpractised　eyes　they
  would　seem　to　possess　no　properties　in　common；　and　it　is　only　after
  subjecting　the　stone　to　severe　processes　of　manufacture　that　usable
  metal　can　be　　obtained　from　it。　　The　effectual　reduction　of　the　ore
  requires　an　intense　heat；　maintained　by　artificial　methods；　such　as
  furnaces　and　blowing　apparatus。*
  ＇footnote。。。
  It　may　be　mentioned　in　passing；　that　while　Zinc　is　fusible　at
  3　degrees　of　Wedgwood's　pyrometer；　Silver　at　22　degrees；　Copper　at
  27　degrees；　and　Gold　at　32　degrees；　Cast　Iron　is　only　fusible　at
  130　degrees。　　Tin　（one　of　the　constituents　of　the　ancient　bronze）　and
  Lead　are　fusible　at　much　lower　degrees　than　zinc。
  。。。＇
  But　it　is　principally　in　combination　with　other　elements　that　iron　is
  so　valuable　when　compared　with　other　metals。　　Thus；　when　combined　with
  carbon；　in　varying　proportions；　substances　are　produced；　so
  different；　but　each　so　valuable；　that　they　might　almost　be　regarded
  in　the　light　of　distinct　metals；such；　for　example；　as　cast…iron；
  and　cast　and　bar　steel；　the　various　qualities　of　iron　enabling　it　to
  be　used　for　purposes　so　opposite　as　a　steel　pen　and　a　railroad；　the
  needle　of　a　mariner's　compass　and　an　Armstrong　gun；　a　surgeon's
  lancet　and　a　steam　engine；　the　mainspring　of　a　watch　and　an　iron
  ship；　a　pair　of　scissors　and　a　Nasmyth　hammer；　a　lady's　earrings　and
  a　tubular　bridge。
  The　variety　of　purposes　to　which　iron　is　thus　capable　of　being
  applied；　renders　it　of　more　use　to　mankind　than　all　the　other　metals
  combined。　　Unlike　iron；　gold　is　found　pure；　and　in　an　almost　workable
  state；　and　at　an　erly　period　in　history；　it　seems　to　have　been　much
  more　plentiful　than　iron　or　steel。　　But　gold　was　unsuited　for　the
  purposes　of　tools；　and　would　serve　for　neither　a　saw；　a　chisel；　an
  axe；　nor　a　sword；　whilst　tempered　steel　could　answer　all　these
  purposes。　　Hence　we　find　the　early　warlike　nations　making　the　backs　of
  their　swords　of　gold　or　copper；　and　economizing　their　steel　to　form
  the　cutting　edge。　　This　is　illustrated　by　many　ancient　Scandinavian
  weapons　in　the　museum　at　Copenhagen；　which　indicate　the　greatest
  parsimony　in　the　use　of　steel　at　a　period　when　both　gold　and　copper
  appear　to　have　been　comparatively　abundant。
  The　knowledge　of　smelting　and　working　in　iron；　like　most　other　arts；
  came　from　the　East。　　Iron　was　especially　valued　for　purposes　of　war；
  of　which　indeed　it　was　regarded　as　the　symbol；　being　called　〃Mars〃　by
  the　Romans。*
  ＇footnote。。。
  The　Romans　named　the　other　metals　after　the　gods。　　Thus　Quicksilver
  was　called　Mercury；　Lead　Saturn；　Tin　Jupiter；　Copper　Venus；　Silver
  Luna；　and　so　on；　and　our　own　language　has　received　a　colouring　from
  the　Roman　nomenclature；　which　it　continues　to　retain。
  。。。＇
  We　find　frequent　mention　of　it　in　the　Bible。　　One　of　the　earliest
  notices　of　the　metal　is　in　connexion　with　the　conquest　of　Judea　by
  the　Philistines。　　To　complete　the　subjection　of　the　Israelites；　their
  conquerors　made　captive　all　the　smiths　of　the　land；　and　carried　them
  away。　　The　Philistines　felt　that　their　hold　of　the　country　was
  insecure　so　long　as　the　inhabitants　possessed　the　means　of　forging
  weapons。　　Hence　〃there　was　no　smith　found　throughout　all　the　land　of
  Israel；　for　the　Philistines　said；　Lest　the　Hebrews　make　them　swords
  or　spears。　　But　the　Israelites　went　down　to　the　Philistines；　to
  sharpen　every　man　his　share；　and　his　coulter；　and　his　axe；　and　his
  mattock。〃*
  ＇footnote。。。
  I。　　Samuel　xiii。　19；　20。
  。。。＇
  At　a　later　period；　when　Jerusalem　was　taken　by　the　Babylonians；　one
  of　their　first　acts　was　to　carry　the　smiths　and　other　craftsmen
  captives　to　Babylon。*
  ＇footnote。。。
  II。　　Kings　xxiv。　16。
  。。。＇
  Deprived　of　their　armourers；　the　Jews　were　rendered　comparatively
  powerless。
  It　was　the　knowledge　of　the　art　of　iron…forging　which　laid　the
  foundation　of　the　once　great　empire　of　the　Turks。　　Gibbon　relates　that
  these　people　were　originally　the　despised　slaves　of　the　powerful　Khan
  of　the　Geougen。　　They　occupied　certain　districts　of　the　mountain…ridge
  in　the　centre　of　Asia；　called　Imaus；　Caf；　and　Altai；　which　yielded
  iron　in　large　quantities。　　This　metal　the　Turks　were　employed　by　the
  Khan　to　forge　for　his　use　in　war。　　A　bold　leader　arose　among　them；　who
  persuaded　the　ironworkers　that　the　arms　which　they　forged　for　their
  masters　might　in　their　own　hands　become　the　instruments　of　freedom。
  Sallying　forth　from　their　mountains；　they　set　up　their　standard；　and
  their　weapons　soon　freed　them。　　For　centuries　after；　the　Turkish
  nation　continued　to　celebrate　the　event　of　their　liberation　by　an
  annual　ceremony；　in　which　a　piece　of　iron　was　heated　in　the　fire；　and
  a　smith's　hammer　was　successively　handled　by　the　prince　and　his
  nobles。
  We　can　only　conjecture　how　the　art　of　smelting　iron　was　discovered。
  Who　first　applied　fire　to　the　ore；　and　made　it　plastic；　who
  discovered　fire　itself；　and　its　uses　in　metallurgy？　No　one　can　tell。
  Tradition　says　that　the　metal　was　discovered　through　the　accidental
  burning　of　a　wood　in　Greece。　　Mr。　Mushet　thinks　it　more　probable　that
  the　discovery　was　made　on　the　conversion　of　wood　into　charcoal　for
  culinary　or　chamber　purposes。　　〃If　a　mass　of　ore；〃　he　says；
  〃accidentally　dropped　into　the　middle　of　the　burning　pile　during　a
  period　of　neglect；　or　during　the　existence　of　a　thorough　draught；　a
  mixed　mass；　partly　earthy　and　partly　metallic；　would　be　obtained；
  possessing　ductility　and　extension　under　pressure。　　But　if　the
  conjecture　is　pushed　still　further；　and　we　suppose　that　the　ore　was
  not　an　oxide；　but　rich　in　iron；　magnetic　or　spicular；　the　result
  would　in　all　probability　be　a　mass　of　perfectly　malleable　iron。　　I
  have　seen　this　fact　illustrated　in　the　roasting　of　a　species　of
  iron…stone；　which　was　united　with　a　considerable　mass　of　bituminous
  matter。　　After　a　high　temperature　had　been　excited　in　the　interior　of
  the　pile；　plates　of　malleable　iron　of　a　tough　and　flexible　nature
  were　formed；　and　under　circumstances　where　there　was　no　fuel　but　that
  furnished　by　the　ore　itself。〃*
  ＇footnote。。。
  Papers　on　Iron　and　Steel；　363…4。
  。。。＇
  The　metal　once　discovered；　many　attempts　would　be　made　to　give　to
  that　which　had　been　the　effect　of　accident　a　more　unerring　result。
  The　smelting　of　ore　in　an　open　heap　of　wood　or　charcoal　being　found
  tedious　and　wasteful；　as　well　as　uncertain；　would　naturally　lead　to
  the　invention　of　a　furnace；　with　the　object　of　keeping　the　ore
  surrounded　as　much　as　possible　with　fuel　while　the　process　of
  conversion　into　iron　was　going　forward。　　The　low　conical　furnaces
  employed　at　this　day　by　some　of　the　tribes　of　Central　and　Southern
  Africa；　are　perhaps　very　much　the　same　in　character　as　those　adopted
  by　the　early　tribes　o