with　respect　to　religion；　ownership；　and　the　distribution　of
  wealth。　But　this　need　imply　no　constraint；　nor　even　any　peculiar
  degree　of　tact；　much　less　a　moral　obliquity。　It　may　confidently
  be　asserted；　without　fear　of　contradiction　from　their　side；　that
  the　official　leaders　in　this　province　of　academic　research　and
  indoctrination　are；　commonly；　in　no　way　hindered　from　pushing
  their　researches　with　full　freedom　and　to　the　limit　of　their
  capacity；　and　that　they　are　likewise　free　to　give　the　fullest
  expression　to　any　conclusions　or　convictions　to　which　their
  inquiries　may　carry　them。　That　they　are　able　to　do　so　is　a
  fortunate　circumstance；　due　to　the　fact　that　their　intellectual
  horizon　is　bounded　by　the　same　limits　of　commonplace　insight　and
  preconceptions　as　are　the　prevailing　opinions　of　the　conservative
  middle　class。　That　is　to　say；　a　large　and　aggressive　mediocrity
  is　the　prime　qualification　for　a　leader　of　science　in　these
  lines；　if　his　leadership　is　to　gain　academic　authentication。
  All　this　may　seem　too　much　like　loose　generality。　With　a　view
  to　such　precision　as　the　case　admits；　it　may　be　remarked　that
  this　province　of　academic　science　as　habitually　pursued；　is
  commonly　occupied　with　questions　of　what　ought　to　be　done；　rather
  than　with　theories　of　the　genesis　and　causation　of　the
  present…day　state　of　things；　or　with　questions　as　to　what　the
  present…day　drift　of　things　may　be；　as　determined　by　the　causes
  at　work。　As　it　does　in　popular　speculation；　so　also　in　this
  academic　quasi…science；　the　interest　centres　on　what　ought　to　be
  done　to　improve　conditions　and　to　conserve　those　usages　and
  conventions　that　have　by　habit　been　imbedded　in　the　received
  scheme　of　use　and　wont；　and　so　have　come　to　be　found　good　and
  right。　It　is　of　the　essence　of　popular　speculations　on　this　range
  of　topics　that　they　are　focussed　on　questions　of　use；　that　they
  are　of　a　teleological　order；　that　they　look　to　the　expediency　of
  the　observed　facts　and　to　their　exploitation；　rather　than　to　a
  scientific　explanation　of　them。　This　attitude；　of　course；　is　the
  attitude　of　expediency　and　homiletics；　not　of　scientific　inquiry。
  A　single　illustrative　instance　of　the　prevalence　of　this
  animus　in　the　academic　social　sciences　may　be　in　place。　It　is
  usual　among　economists；　e。g。；　to　make　much　of　the　proposition
  that　economics　is　an　〃art〃　　the　art　of　expedient　management　of
  the　material　means　of　life；　and　further　that　the　justification　of
  economic　theory　lies　in　its　serviceability　in　this　respect。　Such
  a　quasi…science　necessarily　takes　the　current　situation　for
  granted　as　a　permanent　state　of　things；　to　be　corrected　and
  brought　back　into　its　normal　routine　in　case　of　aberration；　and
  to　be　safeguarded　with　apologetic　defence　at　points　where　it　is
  not　working　to　the　satisfaction　of　all　parties。　It　is　a　〃science〃
  of　complaisant　interpretations；　apologies；　and　projected
  remedies。
  The　academic　leaders　in　such　a　quasi…science　should　be　gifted
  with　the　aspirations　and　limitations　that　so　show　up　in　its
  pursuit。　Their　fitness　in　respect　of　this　conformity　to　the　known
  middle…class　animus　and　apprehension　of　truth　may；　as　it
  expediently　should；　be　considered　when　their　selection　for
  academic　office　and　rank　is　under　advisement；　but；　provided　the
  choice　be　a　wise　one；　there　need　be　no　shadow　of　constraint
  during　their　incumbency。　The　incumbent　should　be　endowed　with　a
  large　capacity　for　work；　particularly　for　〃administrative〃　work；
  with　a　lively　and　enduring　interest　in　the　〃practical〃　questions
  that　fall　within　his　academic　jurisdiction；　and　with　a　shrewd
  sense　of　the　fundamental　rightness　of　the　existing　order　of
  things；　social；　economic；　political；　and　religious。　So；　by　and
  large；　it　will　be　found　that　these　accredited　leaders　of
  scientific　inquiry　are　fortunate　enough　not　narrowly　to
  scrutinize；　or　to　seek　particular　explanation　of；　those
  institutional　facts　which　the　conservative　common　sense　of　the
  elderly　businessman　accepts　as　good　and　final；　and　since　their
  field　of　inquiry　is　precisely　this　range　of　institutional　facts；
  the　consequence　is　that　their　leadership　in　the　science　conduces
  more　to　the　stability　of　opinions　than　to　the　advancement　of
  knowledge。
  The　result　is　by　no　means　that　nothing　is　accomplished　in
  this　field　of　science　under　this　leadership　of　forceful
  mediocrity；　but　only　that；　in　so　far　as　this　leadership　decides；
  the　work　done　lies　on　this　level　of　mediocrity。　Indeed；　the
  volume　of　work　done　is　large　and　of　substantial　value；　but　it
  runs　chiefly　on　compilation　of　details　and　on　the　scrutiny　and
  interpretation　of　these　details　with　a　view　to　their　conformity
  with　the　approved　generalizations　of　the　day　before　yesterday；
  generalizations　that　had　time　to　grow　into　aphoristic
  commonplaces　at　a　date　before　the　passing　generation　of
  businessmen　attained　their　majority。
  What　has　just　been　said　of　this　academic　leadership　in　the
  social　sciences；　of　course；　applies　only　with　due　qualification。
  It　applies　only　in　so　far　as　the　principles　of　competitive
  enterprise　control　the　selection　of　the　personnel；　and　even　then
  only　with　exceptions。　There　is　no　intention　to　depreciate　the
  work　of　those　many　eminent　scholars；　of　scientific　animus　and
  intellectual　grasp；　whose　endeavours　are　given　to　this　range　of
  inquiry。　Its　application；　indeed；　is　intended　to　reach　no　farther
  than　may　serve　to　cover　the　somewhat　tactful　and　quietistic
  attitude　of　the　moral　sciences　in　the　universities。　As　they　are
  cultivated　in　the　great　seminaries　of　learning；　these　sciences
  are　commonly　of　a　somewhat　more　archaic　complexion　than　the
  contemporary　material　sciences；　they　are　less　iconoclastic；　have
  a　greater　regard　for　prescriptive　authority　and　authenticity；　are
  more　given　to　rest　their　inquiry　on　grounds　of　expediency；　as
  contrasted　with　grounds　of　cause　and　effect。　They　are　content　to
  conclude　that　such　and　such　events　are　expedient　or　inexpedient；
  quite　as　often　and　as　easily　as　that　such　are　the　causes　or　the
  genetic　sequence　of　the　phenomena　under　discussion。　In　short；
  under　this　official　leadership　these　sciences　will　have　an
  attitude　toward　their　subject　of　inquiry　resembling　that　taken　by
  the　material　sciences　something　like　a　century　ago。
  To　the　credit　of　this　academic　leadership　in　the　social
  sciences；　then；　it　should　be　said　that　both　the　leaders　and　their
  disciples　apply　themselves　with　admirable　spirit　to　these
  inquiries　into　the　proper；　expedient；　and　normal　course　of
  events；　and　that　the　conclusions　arrived　at　also　shed　much
  salutary　light　on　what　is　proper；　expedient；　and　normal　in　these
  premises。　Inquiries　carried　on　in　this　spirit　in　the　field　of
  human　institutions　belong；　of　course；　in　the　category　of　worldly
  wisdom　rather　than　of　science。　〃Practical〃　questions　occupy　these
  scientists　in　great　part；　and　practical；　or　utilitarian；
  considerations　guide　the　course　of　the　inquiry　and　shape　the
  system　of　generalizations　in　these　sciences；　to　a　much　greater
  extent　than　in　the　material　sciences　with　which　they　are　here
  contrasted。　An　alert　sense　of　the　practical　value　of　their
  inquiries　and　their　teaching　is　one　of　the　chief　requisites　for
  official　recognition　in　the　scientists　who　occupy　themselves　with
  these　matters；　and　it　is　one　of　the　chief　characteristics　of
  their　work。　So　that；　in　so　far　as　it　all　conforms　to　the
  principles　of　competitive　business；　the　line　of　demarcation
  between　worldly　wisdom　and　theoretical　validity　becomes
  peculiarly　indistinct　in　this　province　of　science。　And；　it　may　be
  remarked　by　the　way；　the　influence　of　this　academic　science；　both
  in　its　discipline　and　in　its　tenets；　appears　to　be　wholly
  salutary；　it　conduces；　on　the　whole；　to　a　safe　and　sane；　if　not
  an　enthusiastic；　acceptance　of　things　as　they　are；　without　undue
  curiosity　as　to　why　they　are　such。
  What　has　here　been　said　of　the　place　and　use　of　the　scientist
  under　the　current　r間ime　of　competitive　enterprise　describes　what
  should　follow　from　the　unrestrained　dominion　of　business
  principles　in　academic　policy；　rather　than　what　has　actually　been
  accomplished　in　any　concrete　case；　it　presents　an　ideal　situation
  rather　than　a　relation　of　events；　though　without　losing　touch
  with　current　facts　at　any　point。　The　run　of　the　facts　is；　in
  effect；　a　compromise　between　the　scholar's　ideals　and　those　of
  business；　in　such　a　way　that　the　ideals　of　scho