forces　of　the　establishment　from　its　ostensible　purpose。
  Under　the　rule　imposed　by　those　businesslike　preconceptions
  that　decide　his　selection　for　office；　the　first　duty　of　the
  executive　head　is　to　see　to　the　organization　of　an　administrative
  machinery　for　the　direction　of　the　university's　internal　affairs；
  and　the　establishment　of　a　facile　and　rigorous　system　of
  accountancy　for　the　control　and　exhibition　of　the　academic　work。
  In　the　same　measure　in　which　such　a　system　goes　into　effect　the
  principles　of　competitive　business　will　permeate　the
  administration　in　all　directions；　in　the　personnel　of　the
  academic　staff；　in　the　control　and　intercourse　of　teachers　and
  students；　in　the　schedule　of　instruction；　in　the　disposition　of
  the　material　equipment；　in　the　public　exhibits　and　ceremonial　of
  the　university；　as　well　as　in　its　pecuniary　concerns。
  Within　the　range　of　academic　interests　proper；　these　business
  principles　primarily　affect　the　personnel　and　the　routine　of
  instruction。　Here　their　application　immediately　results　in　an
  administrative　system　of　bureaux　or　departments；　a　hierarchical
  gradation　of　the　members　of　the　staff；　and　a　rigorous　parcelment
  and　standardization　of　the　instruction　offered。　Some　such　system
  is　indispensable　to　any　effective　control　of　the　work　from　above；
  such　as　is　aimed　at　in　the　appointment　of　a　discretionary　head　of
  the　university；　　particularly　in　a　large　school；　and　the
  measure　of　control　desired　will　decide　the　degree　of　thoroughness
  with　which　this　bureaucratic　organization　is　to　be　carried
  through。　The　need　of　a　well…devised　bureaucratic　system　is
  greater　the　more　centralized　and　coercive　the　control　to　which
  the　academic　work　is　to　be　subject；　and　the　degree　of　control　to
  be　exercised　will　be　greater　the　more　urgent　the　felt　need　of　a
  strict　and　large　accountancy　may　be。　All　of　which　resolves　itself
  into　a　question　as　to　the　purposes　sought　by　the　installation　of
  such　a　system。
  For　the　everyday　work　of　the　higher　learning；　as　such；　little
  of　a　hierarchical　gradation；　and　less　of　bureaucratic
  subordination；　is　needful　or　serviceable；　and　very　little　of
  statistical　uniformity；　standard　units　of　erudition；　or　detail
  accountancy；　is　at　all　feasible。　This　work　is　not　of　a　mechanical
  character　and　does　not　lend　itself；　either　in　its　methods　or　its
  results；　to　any　mechanically　standardized　scheme　of　measurements
  or　to　a　system　of　accounting　per　cent　per　time　unit。　This　range
  of　instruction　consists　substantially　in　the　facilitation　of
  scholarly　and　scientific　habits　of　thought；　and　the　imposition　of
  any　appreciable　measure　of　such　standardization　and　accounting
  must　unavoidably　weaken　and　vitiate　the　work　of　instruction；　in
  just　the　degree　in　which　the　imposed　system　is　effective。
  It　is　not　within　the　purpose　of　this　inquiry　to　go　into　the
  bearing　of　all　this　on　the　collegiate　（undergraduate）　departments
  or　on　the　professional　and　technical　schools　associated　with　the
  university　proper　in　American　practice。　But　something　of　a
  detailed　discussion　of　the　system　and　principles　of　control
  applied　in　these　schools　is　necessary　because　of　its　incidental
  bearing　on　graduate　work。
  It　is　plain　beyond　need　of　specification　that　in　the
  practical　view　of　the　public　at　large；　and　of　the　governing
  boards；　the　university　is　primarily　an　undergraduate　school；　with
  graduate　and　professional　departments　added　to　it。　And　it　is
  similarly　plain　that　the　captains　of　erudition　chosen　as
  executive　heads　share　the　same　preconceptions；　and　go　to　their
  work　with　a　view　primarily　to　the　needs　of　their　undergraduate
  departments。　The　businesslike　order　and　system　introduced　into
  the　universities；　therefore；　are　designed　primarily　to　meet　the
  needs　and　exploit　the　possibilities　of　the　undergraduate　school；
  but；　by　force　of　habit；　by　a　desire　of　uniformity；　by　a　desire　to
  control　and　exhibit　the　personnel　and　their　work；　by　heedless
  imitation；　or　what　not；　it　invariably　happens　that　the　same
  scheme　of　order　and　system　is　extended　to　cover　the　graduate　work
  also。
  While　it　is　the　work　of　science　and　scholarship；　roughly　what
  is　known　in　American　usage　as　graduate　work；　that　gives　the
  university　its　rank　as　a　seat　of　learning　and　keeps　it　in
  countenance　as　such　with　laymen　and　scholars；　it　is　the
  undergraduate　school；　or　college；　that　still　continues　to　be　the
  larger　fact；　and　that　still　engages　the　greater　and　more
  immediate　attention　in　university　management。　This　is　due　in　part
  to　received　American　usage；　in　part　to　its　more　readily　serving
  the　ends　of　competitive　ambition；　and　it　is　a　fact　in　the　current
  academic　situation　which　must　be　counted　in　as　a　chronic
  discrepancy；　not　to　be　got　clear　of　or　to　be　appreciably
  mitigated　so　long　as　business　principles　continue　to　rule。
  What　counts　toward　the　advancement　of　learning　and　the
  scholarly　character　of　the　university　is　the　graduate　work；　but
  what　gives　statistically　formidable　results　in　the　way　of　a
  numerous　enrolment；　many　degrees　conferred；　public　exhibitions；
  courses　of　instruction　　in　short　what　rolls　up　a　large　showing
  of　turnover　and　output　　is　the　perfunctory　work　of　the
  undergraduate　department；　as　well　as　the　array　of　vocational
  schools　latterly　subjoined　as　auxiliaries　to　this　end。　Hence　the
  needs　and　possibilities　of　the　undergraduate　and　vocational
  schools　are　primarily；　perhaps　rather　solely；　had　in　view　in　the
  bureaucratic　organization　of　the　courses　of　instruction；　in　the
  selection　of　the　personnel；　in　the　divisions　of　the　school　year；
  as　well　as　in　the　various　accessory　attractions　offered；　such　as
  the　athletic　equipment；　facilities　for　fraternity　and　other　club
  life；　debates；　exhibitions　and　festivities；　and　the　customary
  routine　of　devotional　amenities　under　official　sanction。
  The　undergraduate　or　collegiate　schools；　that　now　bulk　so
  large　in　point　of　numbers　as　well　as　in　the　attention　devoted　to
  their　welfare　in　academic　management；　have　undergone　certain
  notable　changes　in　other　respects　than　size；　since　the　period　of
  that　shifting　from　clerical　control　to　a　business　administration
  that　marks　the　beginning　of　the　current　r間ime。　Concomitant　with
  their　growth　in　numbers　they　have　taken　over　an　increasing　volume
  of　other　functions　than　such　as　bear　directly　on　matters　of
  learning。　At　the　same　time　the　increase　in　numbers　has　brought　a
  change　in　the　scholastic　complexion　of　this　enlarged　student
  body；　of　such　a　nature　that　a　very　appreciable　proportion　of
  these　students　no　longer　seek　residence　at　the　universities　with
  a　view　to　the　pursuit　of　knowledge；　even　ostensibly。　By　force　of
  conventional　propriety　a　〃college　course〃　　the　due　term　of
  residence　at　some　reputable　university；　with　the　collegiate
  degree　certifying　honourable　discharge　　has　become　a　requisite
  of　gentility。　So　considerable　is　the　resulting　genteel　contingent
  among　the　students；　and　so　desirable　is　their　enrolment　and　the
  countenance　of　their　presence；　in　the　apprehension　of　the
  university　directorate；　that　the　academic　organization　is　in
  great　part；　and　of　strategic　necessity；　adapted　primarily　to
  their　needs。
  This　contingent；　and　the　general　body　of　students　in　so　far
  as　this　contingent　from　the　leisure　class　has　leavened　the　lump；
  are　not　so　seriously　interested　in　their　studies　that　they　can　in
  any　degree　be　counted　on　to　seek　knowledge　on　their　own
  initiative。　At　the　same　time　they　have　other　interests　that　must
  be　taken　care　of　by　the　school；　on　pain　of　losing　their　custom
  and　their　good　will；　to　the　detriment　of　the　university's
  standing　in　genteel　circles　and　to　the　serious　decline　in
  enrolment　which　their　withdrawal　would　occasion。　Hence　college
  sports　come　in　for　an　ever　increasing　attention　and　take　an
  increasingly　prominent　and　voluminous　place　in　the　university's
  life；　as　do　also　other　politely　blameless　ways　and　means　of
  dissipation；　such　as　fraternities；　clubs；　exhibitions；　and　the
  extensive　range　of　extra…scholastic　traffic　known　as　〃student
  activities。〃
  At　the　same　time　the　usual　and　average　age　of　the　college
  students　has　been　slowly　falling　farther　back　into　the　period　of
  adolescence；　and　the　irregularities　and　uncertain　temper　of　that
  uneasy　period　consequently　are　calling　for　more　detailed
  surveillance　and　a　more　circumspect　administration　of　college
  discipline。　With　a　body　of　students　whose　every