in　the　Celtic　nature　so　far　transcended　the　limits　of
  the　island；　and　indeed　of　Great　Britain；　that　Irish
  missionaries　and　monks　were　soon　found　in　the
  chief　religious　centres　of　Gaul；　Germany；　Switzerland；
  and　North　Italy；　while　foreigners　found　their
  toilsome　way　to　Ireland　to　learn　Greek！　But　less
  prominence　has　been　given　to　the　artistic　side　of
  this　great　reflex　movement　from　West　to　East　than
  to　the　other　two。　The　simple　facts　attest　that　in
  the　seventh　century；　when　our　earliest　existing
  Irish　MSS。　were　written；　we　find　not　only　a　style
  of　writing　（or　indeed　two）　distinctive；　national；
  and　of　a　high　type　of　excellence；　but　also　a　school
  of　illumination　which；　in　the　combined　lines　of
  mechanical　accuracy　and　intricacy；　of　fertile　invention
  of　form　and　figure　and　of　striking　arrangements
  of　colour；　has　never　been　surpassed。　And
  this　is　in　the　seventh　centurythe　nadir　of　the　rest
  of　Europe！
  〃It　is　certain　that　Alcuin　was　trained　in　Hiberno…
  Saxon　calligraphy；　so　that　we　may　be　surprised　to
  find　that　the　writing　which；　under　Charles　the　Great；
  he　developed　at　Tours；　bears　hardly　a　trace　of　the
  style　to　which　he　was　accustomed。　En　revanche；
  in　the　ornamentation　and　illumination　of　the　great
  Carolingian　volumes　which　have　come　down　to　our
  times；　we　find　those　constant；　persistent　traces　of
  English　and　Irish　work　which　we　seek　for　in　vain
  in　the　plainer　writing。
  〃This　minuscule　superseded　all　others　almost
  throughout　the　empire　of　Charles　the　Great；　and
  during　the　ninth；　tenth；　and　eleventh　centuries
  underwent　very　little　modification。　Even　in　the　two
  next　centuries；　though　it　is　subject　to　general
  modification；　national　differences　are　hardly　observable；
  and　we　can　only　distinguish　two　large　divisions；
  the　group　of　Northern　Europe　（England；　North
  France；　Italy；　and　Spain）。　The　two　exceptions
  are；　that　Germany；　both　in　writing　and　painting；
  has　always　stood　apart；　and　lags　behind　the　other
  nations　of　Western　Europe　in　its　development；　and
  that　England　retains　her　Hiberno…Saxon　hand　till
  after　the　Conquest　of　1066。　It　may　be　noted　that
  the　twelfth　century　produced　the　finest　writing　ever
  knowna　large；　free　and　flowing　form　of　the　minuscule
  of　Tours。　In　the　next　century　comes　in　the　angular
  Gothic　hand；　the　difference　between　which　and
  the　twelfth　century　hand　may　be　fairly　understood
  by　a　comparison　of　ordinary　German　and　Roman
  type。　In　the　thirteenth；　fourteenth；　and　fifteenth
  centuries　the　writing　of　each　century　may　be
  discerned；　while　the　general　tendency　is　towards
  complication；　use　of　abbreviations　and　contractions；
  and　development　of　unessential　parasitic　forms　of
  letters。
  〃The　Book　of　Kells；　the　chief　treasure　of　Trinity
  College；　Dublin；　is　so…called　from　having　been
  long　preserved　at　the　Monastery　of　Kells；　founded
  by　Columba　himself。　Stolen　from　thence；　it　eventually
  passed　into　Archbishop　Ussher's　hands；　and；
  with　other　parts　of　his　library；　to　Dublin。　The
  volume　contains　the　Four　Gospels　in　Latin；　ornamented
  with　extraordinary　freedom；　elaboration；　and
  beauty。　Written　apparently　in　the　seventh　century；
  it　exhibits；　both　in　form　and　colour；　all　the
  signs　of　the　full　development　and　maturity　of　the
  Irish　style；　and　must　of　necessity　have　been　preceded
  by　several　generations　of　artistic　workers；
  who　founded　and　improved　this　particular　school
  of　art。　The　following　words　of　Professor　Westwood；
  who　first　drew　attention　to　the　peculiar　excellences
  of　this　volume；　will　justify　tile　terms　made
  use　of　above：　'This　copy　of　the　Gospels；　traditionally
  asserted　to　have　belonged　to　Columba；　is
  unquestionably　the　most　elaborately　executed　MS。
  of　early　art　now　in　existence；　far　excelling；　in　the
  gigantic　size　of　the　letters　in　the　frontispieces　of
  the　Gospel；　the　excessive　minuteness　of　the　ornamental
  details；　the　number　of　its　decorations；　the
  fineness　of　the　writing；　and　the　endless　variety　of
  initial　capital　letters　with　which　every　page　is
  ornamented；　the　famous　Gospels　of　Lindisfarne　in　the
  Cottonian　Library。　But　this　MS。　is　still　more　valuable
  on　account　of　the　various　pictorial　representations
  of　different　scenes　in　the　life　of　our　Saviour；
  delineated　in　a　style　totally　unlike　that　of　every
  other　school。'　〃
  CHAPTER　VII。
  EARLY　MEDIAEVAL　INK。
  CONTROVERSIES　AMONG　HEBREW　SCHOLARS　RELATING　TO
  RITUALISTIC　INKSTHE　CLASS　OF　INKS　EMPLOYED　BY
  THE　FRENCH　AND　GERMAN　JEWSCONVENTION　OF
  REPRESENTATIVES　FROM　JEWISH　CENTERSSUBMISSION
  OF　THEIR　DIFFERENCES　TO　MAIMONIDESHE　DEFINES
  TALMUDIC　INKSIXTH　CENTURY　REFERENCE　TO
  〃GALL〃　INKASSERTION　OF　HOTZ…OSTERWALD　THAT
  EXCLUSIVE　OF　THE　INDIAN　INK；　THE　WRITING　PIGMENTS
  OF　ANTIQUITY　HAVE　NEVER　BEEN　INVESTIGATEDHIS
  BELIEF　THAT　YEAST　FORMED　A　PORTION
  OF　THEMSOME　OTHER　OBSERVATIONS　ON　THIS
  SUBJECTANCIENT　FORMULAS　ABOUT　THE　LEES　OF
  WINE　IN　INK…MAKINGCOMMENTS　ON　INK…MAKING　BY
  PLINYANCIENT　FORMULA　OF　POMEGRANATE　INK
  SECRETA　BY　THE　MONK　THEOPHILUSWHAT　THE；
  THORN　TREE　HE　REFERS　TO　REALLY　ISIDENTITY　OF
  THE　MYROBOLAM　INK　OF　THE　MOST　REMOTE　ANTIQUITY
  WITH　THE　POMEGRANATE　INK　OF　THE　MIDDLE　AGES
  THE　USES　OF　THE　ACACIA　TREE。
  MOST　of　the　documents　of　early　mediaeval　times
  which　remain　to　us　containing　ink　in　fairly　good　condition；
  like　charters；　protocols；　bulls；　wills；　diplomas；
  and　the　like；　were　written　or　engrossed　with　〃Indian〃
  ink；　in　which　respect　we　of　the　present　century　continue
  to　follow　such　established　precedent　when　preparing
  important　written　instruments。　It　is　not
  remarkable；　therefore；　that　the　black　inks　of　the
  seventh；　eighth；　ninth　and　tenth　centuries　preserve
  their　blackness　so　much　better　than　many　belonging
  to　succeeding　ages；　including　a　new　class　of　inks　which
  could　not　stand　the　test　of　time。
  During　the　twelfth　and　first　years　of　the　thirteenth
  centuries　there　were　bitter　controversies　among　Talmudic
  （Hebrew）　scholars；　relative　to　the　character　of
  the　ink　to　be　employed　in　the　preparation　of　ritualistic
  writings。　Nice　distinctions　were　drawn　as　to　the
  real　meaning　of　the　word　deyo　as　understood　by　the
  Jews　of　the　western　part　of　the　world；　and　the　Arabic
  word　alchiber；　as　then　understood　nearer　Palestine
  and　the　other　eastern　countries。
  The　French　Jews　were　using　〃tusche〃　（typical　of
  the　〃Indian〃　ink）；　while　the　Germans　were　employing
  〃pomegranate〃　and　〃gall〃　inks。　Representatives
  from　interested　religious　Jewish　centers　came
  together　and　resolved　to　submit　their　differences　for
  final　adjustment　to　Maimonides；　born　in　Spain；　A。　D。
  1130　；　and　died　A。　D。　1204the　then　greatest　living
  Hebrew　theologian　and　authority　on　biblical　and
  rabbinical　laws。　Discarding　all　side　issues；　their　differences
  were　seemingly　incorporated　into　three　questions
  and　thus　propounded　to　him：
  1。　Is　the　Talmudic　deyo　identical　with　alchiber？
  2。　Of　what　ingredient　should　the　Talmudic　deyo
  consist；　if　it　is　not　the　same　as　alchiber？
  3。　Is　alchiber　to　be　understood　as　relating　to　the
  gall…apple　and　chalkanthum　（blue　vitriol）？
  To　the　first　and　third　questions　Maimonides　declared
  that　deyo　and　alchiber　were　not　identical；
  and　for　the　reasons　that　the　Talmud　declares　deyo　to
  be　a　writing　material　which　does　not　remain　on　the
  surface　on　which　it　is　placed　and　to　be　easily　effaced。
  On　the　other　hand　alchiber　contains　gum　and　other
  things　which　causes　it　to　adhere　to　the　writing　surface。
  To　the　second　question　he　affirmed　that　the　Talmud
  distinguishes　a　double　kind　of　deyo；　one　containing
  little　or　no　gum　and　being　a　fluid；　and　the　other　referring
  to　〃pulverized　coal　of　the　vine；　soot　from
  burning　olive　oil；　tar；　rosin　and　honey；　pressed　into
  plates　to　be　dissolved　in　water　when　wanted　for　use。〃
  Furthermore；　while　the　Talmud　excludes　the　use　of
  certain　inks　of　which　iron　vitriol　was　one；　it　does　not
  exclude　atramentum；　（chalkanthum；　copper　vitriol）；
  because　the　Talmud　never　speaks　of　it。　He　insisted
  that　the　Talmud　requires　a　dry　ink　（deyo）。
  As　one　of　the　last　entries　made　in　the　Talmud　（a
  great　collection　of　legal　decisions　by　the　ancient
  Rabbis；　Hebrew　traditions；　etc。；　and　believed　to　have
  been　commenced　in　the　second　century　of　the　Christian
  era）　is　claimed　to　belong　to　the　sixth　century；
  mentions　gall…apples　and　iron　（copper）　vitriol；　it　must
  have　referred　to　〃gall〃　ink。　Further　investigation
  discloses　the　fact　that　such　galls　were　of　Chinese　origin
  and　as　we　know　they　do　not　contain　the　necessary
  ferment　which　the　aleppo　and　other　galls　possess　for
  inducing　a　transformation　of　the　tannin　into　gallic
  acid；　no　complete　union　could　therefore　obtain。
  Hence　the　value　of　this　composition　was　limited　until
  the　time　when　yeast　and　other　materials　were　introduced
  to　overcome　its　deficiencies。
  Hotz…Osterwald　of　Zurich；　antiquarian　and　scholar；
  has　asserted　that　with　the　exception　of　the　carbon
  inks　employed　on　papyrus；　the　writing　pigments　of