noisy　summoner　for　ecclesiastical　offences：　hunters　and　gluttons
  are　they；　with　greyhounds　and　furs；；　greasy　and　fat；　and　full　of
  dalliances；　at　home　in　taverns；　unprincipled　but　agreeable
  vagabonds；　who　cheat　and　rob　the　people；　and　make　a　mockery　of　what
  is　most　sacred　on　the　earth。　　These　privileged　mendicants；　with
  their　relics　and　indulgences；　their　arts　and　their　lies；　and　the
  scandals　they　create；　are　treated　by　Chaucer　with　blended　humor　and
  severity；　showing　a　mind　as　enlightened　as　that　of　the　great
  scholar　at　Oxford；　who　heads　the　movement　against　Rome　and　the
  abuses　at　which　she　connived　if　she　did　not　encourage。　　And　there
  is　something　intensely　English　in　his　disgust　and　scorn；brave　for
  his　day；　yet　shielded　by　the　great　duke　who　was　at　once　his
  protector　and　friend；　as　he　was　of　Wyclif　himself；in　his　severer
  denunciation；　and　advocacy　of　doctrines　which　neither　Chaucer　nor
  Duke　of　Lancaster　understood；　and　which；　if　they　had；　they　would
  not　have　sympathized　with　nor　encouraged。　　In　these　attacks　on
  ecclesiastics　and　ecclesiastical　abuses；　Chaucer　should　be　studied
  with　Wyclif　and　the　early　reformers；　although　he　would　not　have
  gone　so　far　as　they；　and　led；　unlike　them；　a　worldly　life。　　Thus　by
  these　poems　he　has　rendered　a　service　to　his　country；　outside　his
  literary　legacy；　which　has　always　been　held　in　value。　　The　father
  of　English　poetry　belonged　to　the　school　of　progress　and　of
  inquiry；　like　his　great　contemporaries　on　the　Continent。　　But　while
  he　paints　the　manners；　customs；　and　characters　of　the　fourteenth
  century；　he　does　not　throw　light　on　the　great　ideas　which　agitated
  or　enslaved　the　age。　　He　is　too　real　and　practical　for　that。　　he
  describes　the　outward；　not　the　inner　life。　　He　was　not　serious
  enoughI　doubt　if　he　was　learned　enoughto　enter　into　the
  disquisitions　of　schoolmen；　or　the　mazes　of　the　scholastic
  philosophy；　or　the　meditations　of　almost　inspired　sages。　　It　is　not
  the　joys　of　heaven　or　the　terrors　of　hell　on　which　he　discourses；
  but　of　men　and　women　as　they　lived　around　him；　in　their　daily
  habits　and　occupations。　　We　must　go　to　Wyclif　if　we　would　know　the
  theological　or　philosophical　doctrines　which　interested　the
  learned。　　Chaucer　only　tells　how　monks　and　friars　lived；　not　how
  they　speculated　or　preached。　　We　see　enough；　however；　to　feel　that
  he　was　emancipated　from　the　ideas　of　the　Middle　Ages；　and　had　cast
  off　their　gloom；　their　superstition；　and　their　despair。　　The　only
  things　he　liked　of　those　dreary　times　were　their　courts　of　love　and
  their　chivalric　glories。
  I　do　not　propose　to　analyze　the　poetry　of　Chaucer；　or　enter　upon　a
  critical　inquiry　as　to　his　relative　merits　in　comparison　with　the
  other　great　poets。　　It　is　sufficient　for　me　to　know　that　critics
  place　him　very　high　as　an　original　poet；　although　it　is　admitted
  that　he　drew　much　of　his　material　from　French　and　Italian　authors。
  He　was；　for　his　day；　a　great　linguist。　　He　had　travelled
  extensively；　and　could　speak　Latin；　French；　and　Italian　with
  fluency。　　He　knew　Petrarch　and　other　eminent　Italians。　　One　is
  amazed　that　in　such　an　age　he　could　have　written　so　well；　for　he
  had　no　great　models　to　help　him　in　his　own　language。　　If
  occasionally　indecent；　he　is　not　corrupting。　　He　never　deliberately
  disseminates　moral　poison；　and　when　he　speaks　of　love；　he　treats
  almost　solely　of　the　simple　and　genuine　emotions　of　the　heart。
  The　best　criticism　that　I　have　read　of　Chaucer's　poetry　is　that　of
  Adolphus　William　Ward；　although　as　a　biography　it　is　not　so　full　or
  so　interesting　as　that　of　Godwin　or　even　Morley。　　In　no　life　that　I
  have　read　are　the　mental　characteristics　of　our　poet　so　ably
  drawn；〃his　practical　good　sense；〃　his　love　of　books；　his　still
  deeper　love　of　nature；　his　naivete；　the　readiness　of　his
  description；　the　brightness　of　his　imagery；　the　easy　flow　of　his
  diction；　the　vividness　with　which　he　describes　character；　his
  inventiveness；　his　readiness　of　illustration；　his　musical　rhythm；
  his　gaiety　and　cheerfulness；　his　vivacity　and　joyousness；　his
  pathos　and　tenderness；　his　keen　sense　of　the　ridiculous　and　power
  of　satire；　without　being　bitter；　so　that　his　wit　and　fun　are
  harmless；　and　perpetually　pleasing。
  He　doubtless　had　great　dramatic　talent；　but　he　did　not　live　in　a
  dramatic　age。　　His　especial　excellence；　never　surpassed；　was　his
  power　of　observing　and　drawing　character；　united　with　boundless
  humor　and　cheerful　fun。　　And　his　descriptions　of　nature　are　as　true
  and　unstinted　as　his　descriptions　of　men　and　women；　so　that　he　is
  as　fresh　as　the　month　of　May。　　In　his　poetry　is　life；　and　hence　his
  immortal　fame。　　He　is　not　so　great　as　Spenser　or　Shakspeare　or
  Milton；　but　he　has　the　same　vitality　as　they；　and　is　as　wonderful
  as　they　considering　his　age　and　opportunities；a　poet　who
  constantly　improved　as　he　advanced　in　life；　and　whose　greatest　work
  was　written　in　his　old　age。
  Unfortunately；　we　know　but　little　of　Chaucer's　habits　and
  experiences；　his　trials　and　disappointments；　his　friendships　or　his
  hatreds。　　What　we　do　know　of　him　raises　our　esteem。　　Though
  convivial；　he　was　temperate；　though　genial；　he　was　a　silent
  observer；　quiet　in　his　manners；　modest　in　his　intercourse　with　the
  world；　walking　with　downcast　eye；　but　letting　nothing　escape　his
  notice。　　He　believed　in　friendship；　and　kept　his　friends　to　the
  end；　and　was　stained　neither　by　envy　nor　by　pride；as　frank　as　he
  was　affectionate；　as　gentle　as　he　was　witty。　　Living　with　princes
  and　nobles；　he　never　descended　to　gross　adulation；　and　never　wrote
  a　line　of　approval　of　the　usurpation　of　Henry　IV。；　although　his
  bread　depended　on　Henry's　favor；　and　he　was　also　the　son　of　the
  king's　earliest　and　best　friend。　　He　was　not　a　religious　man；　nor
  was　he　an　immoral　man；　judged　by　the　standard　of　his　age。　　He
  probably　was　worldly；　as　he　lived　in　courts。　　We　do　not　see　in　him
  the　stern　virtues　of　Dante　or　Milton；　nothing　of　that　moral
  earnestness　which　marked　the　only　other　great　man　with　whom　he　was
  contemporary；he　who　is　called　the　〃morning　star〃　of　the
  Reformation。　　But　then　we　know　nothing　about　him　which　calls　out
  severe　reprobation。　　He　was　patriotic；　and　had　the　confidence　of
  his　sovereign；　else　he　would　not　have　been　employed　on　important
  missions。　　And　the　sweetness　of　his　character　may　be　inferred　from
  his　long　and　tender　friendship　with　Gower；　whom　some　in　that　age
  considered　the　greater　poet。　　He　was　probably　luxurious　in　his
  habits；　but　intemperate　use　of　wine　he　detested　and　avoided。　　He
  was　portly　in　his　person；　but　refinement　marked　his　features。　　He
  was　a　gentleman；　according　to　the　severest　code　of　chivalric
  excellence；　always　a　favorite　with　ladies；　and　equally　admired　by
  the　knights　and　barons　of　a　brilliant　court。　　No　poet　was　ever　more
  honored　in　his　life　or　lamented　in　his　death；　as　his　beautiful
  monument　in　Westminster　Abbey　would　seem　to　attest。　　That　monument
  is　the　earliest　that　was　erected　to　the　memory　of　a　poet　in　that
  Pantheon　of　English　men　of　rank　and　genius；　and　it　will　probably　be
  as　long　preserved　as　any　of　those　sculptured　urns　and　animated
  busts　which　seek　to　keep　alive　the　memory　of　the　illustrious　dead；
  of　those　who；　though　dead；　yet　speak　to　all　future　generations。
  AUTHORITIES。
  Chaucer's　own　works；　especially　the　Canterbury　Tales；　publications
  of　the　Chaucer　Society；　Pauli's　History　of　England；　ordinary
  Histories　of　England　which　relate　to　the　reigns　of　Edward　III。　and
  Richard　II。；　especially　Green's　History　of　the　English　People；　Life
  of　Chaucer；　by　William　Godwin　（4　volumes；　London；　1804）；　Tyrwhitt's
  edition　of　Canterbury　Tales；　Speglet's　edition　of　Chaucer；　Warton's
  History　of　English　Poetry；　St。　Palaye's　History　of　Chivalry；
  Chaucer's　England；　by　Matthew　Browne　（London；　1869）；　Sir　Harris
  Nicholas's　Life　of　Chaucer；　The　Riches　of　Chaucer；　by　Charles
  Cowden　Clarke；　Morley's　Life　of　Chaucer。　　The　latest　work　is　a　Life
  and　Criticism　of　Chaucer；　by　Adolphus　William　Ward。　　There　is　also
  a　Guide　to　Chaucer；　by　H。　G。　Fleary。　　See　also　Skeat's　collected
  edition　of　Chaucer's　Works；　brought　out　under　the　auspices　of　the
  Early　English　Text　Society。
  CHRISTOPHER　COLUMBUS。
  A。D。　1446…1506。
  MARITIME　DISCOVERIES。
  About　thirteen　hundred　years　ago；　when　Attila　the　Hun；　called　〃the
  scourge　of　God；〃　was　overrunning　the　falling　empire　of　the　Romans；
  some　of　the　noblest　citizens　of　the　small　cities　of　the　Adriatic
  fled；　with　their　families　and　effects；　to　the　inaccessible　marshes
  and　islands　at　the　extremity　of　that　sea；　and　formed　a　permanent
  settlement。　　They　became　fishermen　and　small　traders。　　In　process
  of　time　they　united　their　islands　together　by　bridges；　and　laid　the
  foundation　of　a　mercantile　state。　　Thither　resorted　the　merchants
  of　Mediaeval　Europe　to　make　exchanges。　　Thus　Venice　became　rich　and
  powerful；　and　in　the　twelfth　century　it　was　one　of　the　prosperous
  states　of　Europe；　ruled　by　an　oligarchy　o