commerce　in　the　main　went　seaward；　and　thence　to　New　England　or
  to　Europe。　Hitherto　the　railway　lines　had　seen　no　reason　for
  merging　their　local　character　in　extensive　combinations。　Owners
  of　short　lines　were　inclined　by　tradition　to　resist　even　the
  imperative　necessities　of　war　and　their　stubborn　conservatism　was
  frequently　encouraged　by　the　shortsighted　parochialism　of　the
  towns。　The　same　pitiful　narrowness　that　led　the　peasant　farmer　to
  threaten　rebellion　against　the　tax　in　kind　led　his　counterpart　in
  the　towns　to　oppose　the　War　Department　in　its　efforts　to
  establish　through　railroad　lines　because　they　threatened　to
  impair　local　business　interests。　A　striking　instance　of　this
  disinclination　towards　cooperation　is　the　action　of　Petersburg。
  Two　railroads　terminated　at　this　point　but　did　not　connect；　and
  it　was　an　ardent　desire　of　the　military　authorities　to　link　the
  two　and　convert　them　into　one。　The　town；　however；　unable　to　see
  beyond　its　boundaries　and　resolute　in　its　determination　to　save
  its　transfer　business；　successfully　obstructed　the　needs　of　the
  army。*
  *　See　an　article　on　〃The　Confederate　Government　and　the
  Railroads〃　in　the　〃American　Historical　Review；〃　July；　1917；　by
  Charles　W。　Ramsdell。
  As　a　result　of　this　lack　of　efficient　organization　an　immense
  congestion　resulted　all　along　the　railroads。　Whether　this；　rather
  than　a　failure　in　supply；　explains　the　approach　of　famine　in　the
  latter　part　of　the　war；　it　is　today　very　difficult　to　determine。
  In　numerous　state　papers　of　the　time；　the　assertion　was
  reiterated　that　the　yield　of　food　was　abundant　and　that　the
  scarcity　of　food　at　many　places；　including　the　cities　and　the
  battle　fronts；　was　due　to　defects　in　transportation。　Certain　it
  is　that　the　progress　of　supplies　from　one　point　to　another　was
  intolerably　slow。
  All　this　want　of　coordination　facilitated　speculation。　We　shall
  see　hereafter　how　merciless　this　speculation　became　and　we　shall
  even　hear　of　profits　on　food　rising　to　more　than　four　hundred　per
  cent。　However；　the　oft…quoted　prices　of　the　later　yearswhen；
  for　instance；　a　pair　of　shoes　cost　a　hundred　dollarssignify
  little；　for　they　rested　on　an　inflated　currency。　None　the　less
  they　inspired　the　witticism　that　one　should　take　money　to　market
  in　a　basket　and　bring　provisions　home　in　one's　pocketbook。
  Endless　stories　could　be　told　of　speculators　hoarding　food　and
  watching　unmoved　the　sufferings　of　a　famished　people。　Said　Bishop
  Pierce；　in　a　sermon　before　the　General　Assembly　of　Georgia；　on
  Fast　Day；　in　March；　1863：　〃Restlessness　and　discontent
  prevail。。。。
  Extortion；　pitiless　extortion　is　making　havoc　in　the　land。
  We　are　devouring　each　other。　Avarice　with　full　barns　puts　the
  bounties　of　Providence　under　bolts　and　bars；　waiting　with　eager
  longings　for　higher　prices。。。。　The　greed　of　gain。。。stalks
  among　us　unabashed　by　the　heroic　sacrifice　of　our　women　or　the
  gallant　deeds　of　our　soldiers。　Speculation　in　salt　and　bread　and
  meat　runs　riot　in　defiance　of　the　thunders　of　the　pulpit；　and
  executive　interference　and　the　horrors　of　threatened　famine。〃　In
  1864；　the　Government　found　that　quantities　of　grain　paid　in　under
  the　tax　as　new…grown　were　mildewed。　It　was　grain　of　the　previous
  year　which　speculators　had　held　too　long　and　now　palmed　off　on
  the　Government　to　supply　the　army。
  Amid　these　desperate　conditions　the　fate　of　soldiers'　families
  became　everywhere；　a　tragedy。　Unless　the　soldier　was　a　land…owner
  his　family　was　all　but　helpless。　With　a　depreciated　currency　and
  exaggerated　prices；　his　pay；　whatever　his　rank；　was　too　little　to
  count　in　providing　for　his　dependents。　Local　charity；　dealt　out
  by　state　and　county　boards；　by　relief　associations；　and　by　the
  generosity　of　neighbors；　formed　the　barrier　between　his　family
  and　starvation。　The　landless　soldier；　with　a　family　at　home　in
  desperate　straits；　is　too　often　overlooked　when　unimaginative
  people　heap　up　the　statistics　of　〃desertion〃　in　the　latter　half
  of　the　war。
  It　was　in　this　period；　too；　that　amid　the　terrible　shrinkage　of
  the　defensive　lines　〃refugeeing〃　became　a　feature　of　Southern
  life。　From　the　districts　over　which　the　waves　of　war　rolled　back
  and　forth　helpless　familieswomen；　children；　slavesfound
  precarious　safety　together　with　great　hardship　by　withdrawing　to
  remote　places　which　invasion　was　little　likely　to　reach。　An
  Odyssey　of　hard　travel；　often　by　night　and　half　secret；　is　part
  of　the　war　tradition　of　thousands　of　Southern　families。　And　here；
  as　always；　the　heroic　women；　smiling；　indomitable；　are　the　center
  of　the　picture。　Their　flight　to　preserve　the　children　was　no
  small　test　of　courage。　Almost　invariably　they　had　to　traverse
  desolate　country；　with　few　attendants；　through　forests；　and
  across　rivers；　where　the　arm　of　the　law　was　now　powerless　to
  protect　them。　Outlaws；　defiant　of　the　authorities　both　civil　and
  military；ruthless　men　of　whom　we　shall　hear　again；roved　those
  great　unoccupied　spaces　so　characteristic　of　the　Southern
  countryside。　Many　a　family　legend　preserves　still　the　sense　of
  breathless　caution；　of　pilgrimage　in　the　night…time　intently
  silent　for　fear　of　these　masterless　men。　When　the　remote
  rendezvous　had　been　reached；　there　a　colony　of　refugees　drew
  together　in　a　steadfast　despair；　unprotected　by　their　own
  fighting　men。　What　strange　sad　pages　in　the　history　of　American
  valor　were　filled　by　these　women　outwardly　calm；　their　children
  romping　after　butterflies　in　a　glory　of　sunshine；　while　horrid
  tales　drifted　in　of　deeds　done　by　the　masterless　men　in　the
  forest　just　beyond　the　horizon；　and　far　off　on　the　soul's
  horizon　fathers；　husbands；　brothers；　held　grimly　the　lines　of
  last　defense！
  Chapter　VII。　The　Turning　Of　The　Tide
  The　buoyancy　of　the　Southern　temper　withstood　the　shock　of
  Gettysburg　and　was　not　overcome　by　the　fall　of　Vicksburg。　Of　the
  far…reaching　significance　of　the　latter　catastrophe　in　particular
  there　was　little　immediate　recognition。　Even　Seddon；　the
  Secretary　of　War；　in　November；　reported　that　〃the　communication
  with　the　Trans…Mississippi；　while　rendered　somewhat　precarious
  and　insecure；　is　found　by　no　means　cut　off　or　even　seriously
  endangered。〃　His　report　was　the　same　sort　of　thing　as　those
  announcements　of　〃strategic　retreats〃　with　which　the　world　has
  since　become　familiar。　He　even　went　so　far　as　to　argue　that　on
  the　whole　the　South　had　gained　rather　than　lost；　that　the　control
  of　the　river　was　of　no　real　value　to　the　North；　that　the　loss　of
  Vicksburg　〃has　on　our　side　liberated　for　general　operations　in
  the　field　a　large　army；　while　it　requires　the　enemy　to　maintain
  cooped　up；　inactive；　in　positions　insalubrious　to　their　soldiers；
  considerable　detachments　of　their　forces。〃
  Seddon　attempted　to　reverse　the　facts；　to　show　that　the
  importance　of　the　Mississippi　in　commerce　was　a　Northern　not　a
  Southern　concern。　He　threw　light　upon　the　tactics　of　the　time　by
  his　description　of　the　future　action　of　Confederate　sharpshooters
  who　were　to　terrorize　such　commercial　crews　as　might　attempt　to
  navigate　the　river；　he　also　told　how　light　batteries　might　move
  swiftly　along　the　banks　and；　at　points　commanding　the　channel；
  rain　on　the　passing　steamer　unheralded　destruction。　He　was　silent
  upon　the　really　serious　matter；　the　patrol　of　the　river　by
  Federal　gunboats　which　rendered　commerce　with　the
  Trans…Mississippi　all　but　impossible。
  This　report；　dated　the　26th　of　November；　gives　a　roseate　view　of
  the　war　in　Tennessee　and　enlarges　upon　that　dreadful　battle　of
  Chickamauga　which　〃ranks　as　one　of　the　grandest　victories　of　the
  war。〃　But　even　as　the　report　was　signed；　Bragg　was　in　full
  retreat　after　his　great　disaster　at　Chattanooga。　On　the　30th　of
  November　the　Administration　at　Richmond　received　from　him　a
  dispatch　that　closed　with　these　words：　〃I　deem　it　due　to　the
  cause　and　to　myself　to　ask　for　relief　from　command　and　an
  investigation　into　the　causes　of　the　defeat。〃　In　the　middle　of
  December；　Joseph　E。　Johnston　was　appointed　to　succeed　him。
  Whatever　had　been　the　illusions　of　the　Government；　they　were　now
  at　an　end。　There　was　no　denying　that　the　war　had　entered　a　new
  stage　and　that　the　odds　were　grimly　against　the　South。　Davis
  recognized　the　gravity　of　the　situation；　and　in　his　message　to
  Congress　in　December；　1863；　he　admitted　that　the
  Trans…Mississippi　was　practically　isolated。　This　was　indeed　a
  great　catastrophe；　for　hereafter　neither　men　nor　supplies　could
  be　drawn　from　the　far　Southwest。　Furthermore；　the　Confederacy　had
  now　lost　its　former　precious　advantage　of　using　Mexico　as　a　means
  of　secret　trade　with　Europe。
  These　distressing　events　of　the　four　months　between　Vicksburg　and
  Chattanooga　established　also　the　semi…isolation　of　the　middle
  region　of　the　lower　South。　The　two　States　of　Mississippi　and
  Alabama　entered　upon　the　most　desperate　chapter　of　their　history。
  Neither　in　nor　out　of　the　Confederacy；　neither　protected　by　the
  Confederate　lines　nor　policed　by　the　enemy；　they　were　subject　at
  once　to　the　full　rigor　of　the　financial　and　military　demands　of
  the　Administration　of　Richmond　and　to　the　full　ruthlessness　of
  plundering　raids　from　the　North。　Nowhere　can　the　contrast　between
  the　warfare　of　that　day　and　the　best　methods　of　our