for　the　benefit　of　the　Tartar　treasury。
  The　state　of　Moscow；　growing　fat　at　the　expense　of　the
  surrounding　territory；　finally　became　strong　enough　to　risk
  open　rebellion　against　its　masters；　the　Tartars。　It　was　successful
  and　its　fame　as　the　leader　in　the　cause　of　Russian　independence
  made　Moscow　the　natural　centre　for　all　those　who
  still　believed　in　a　better　future　for　the　Slavic　race。　In　the　year
  1458；　Constantinople　was　taken　by　the　Turks。　Ten　years
  later；　under　the　rule　of　Ivan　III；　Moscow　informed　the
  western　world　that　the　Slavic　state　laid　claim　to　the　worldly
  and　spiritual　inheritance　of　the　lost　Byzantine　Empire；　and
  such　traditions　of　the　Roman　empire　as　had　survived　in
  Constantinople。　A　generation　afterwards；　under　Ivan　the　Terrible；
  the　grand　dukes　of　Moscow　were　strong　enough　to　adopt　the
  title　of　Caesar；　or　Tsar；　and　to　demand　recognition　by　the　western
  powers　of　Europe。
  In　the　year　1598；　with　Feodor　the　First；　the　old　Muscovite
  dynasty；　descendants　of　the　original　Norseman　Rurik；　came　to
  an　end。　For　the　next　seven　years；　a　Tartar　half…breed；　by　the
  name　of　Boris　Godunow；　reigned　as　Tsar。　It　was　during
  this　period　that　the　future　destiny　of　the　large　masses　of　the
  Russian　people　was　decided。　This　Empire　was　rich　in　land
  but　very　poor　in　money。　There　was　no　trade　and　there　were
  no　factories。　Its　few　cities　were　dirty　villages。　It　was　composed
  of　a　strong　central　government　and　a　vast　number　of
  illiterate　peasants。　This　government；　a　mixture　of　Slavic；
  Norse；　Byzantine　and　Tartar　influences；　recognised　nothing
  beyond　the　interest　of　the　state。　To　defend　this　state；　it
  needed　an　army。　To　gather　the　taxes；　which　were　necessary
  to　pay　the　soldiers；　it　needed　civil　servants。　To　pay　these　many
  officials　it　needed　land。　In　the　vast　wilderness　on　the　east
  and　west　there　was　a　sufficient　supply　of　this　commodity。　But
  land　without　a　few　labourers　to　till　the　fields　and　tend　the
  cattle；　has　no　value。　Therefore　the　old　nomadic　peasants
  were　robbed　of　one　privilege　after　the　other；　until　finally；　during
  the　first　year　of　the　sixteenth　century；　they　were　formally
  made　a　part　of　the　soil　upon　which　they　lived。　The　Russian
  peasants　ceased　to　be　free　men。　They　became　serfs　or　slaves
  and　they　remained　serfs　until　the　year　1861；　when　their　fate
  had　become　so　terrible　that　they　were　beginning　to　die　out。
  In　the　seventeenth　century；　this　new　state　with　its　growing
  territory　which　was　spreading　quickly　into　Siberia；　had　become
  a　force　with　which　the　rest　of　Europe　was　obliged　to
  reckon。　In　1618；　after　the　death　of　Boris　Godunow；　the
  Russian　nobles　had　elected　one　of　their　own　number　to　be
  Tsar。　He　was　Michael；　the　son　of　Feodor；　of　the　Moscow　family
  of　Romanow　who　lived　in　a　little　house　just　outside　the
  Kremlin。
  In　the　year　1672　his　great…grandson；　Peter；　the　son　of　another
  Feodor；　was　born。　When　the　child　was　ten　years　old；
  his　step…sister　Sophia　took　possession　of　the　Russian　throne。
  The　little　boy　was　allowed　to　spend　his　days　in　the　suburbs　of
  the　national　capital；　where　the　foreigners　lived。　Surrounded
  by　Scotch　barkeepers；　Dutch　traders；　Swiss　apothecaries；　Italian
  barbers；　French　dancing　teachers　and　German　school…masters；
  the　young　prince　obtained　a　first　but　rather　extraordinary
  impression　of　that　far…away　and　mysterious　Europe　where
  things　were　done　differently。
  When　he　was　seventeen　years　old；　he　suddenly　pushed
  Sister　Sophia　from　the　throne。　Peter　himself　became　the　ruler
  of　Russia。　He　was　not　contented　with　being　the　Tsar　of　a
  semi…barbarous　and　half…Asiatic　people。　He　must　be　the　sovereign
  head　of　a　civilised　nation。　To　change　Russia　overnight
  from　a　Byzantine…Tartar　state　into　a　European　empire　was　no
  small　undertaking。　It　needed　strong　hands　and　a　capable
  head。　Peter　possessed　both。　In　the　year　1698；　the　great
  operation　of　grafting　Modern　Europe　upon　Ancient　Russia　was
  performed。　The　patient　did　not　die。　But　he　never　got　over
  the　shock；　as　the　events　of　the　last　five　years　have　shown　very
  plainly。
  RUSSIA　vs。　SWEDEN
  RUSSIA　AND　SWEDEN　FIGHT　MANY　WARS　TO
  DECIDE　WHO　SHALL　BE　THE　LEADING
  POWER　OF　NORTH…EASTERN　EUROPE
  IN　the　year　1698；　Tsar　Peter　set　forth　upon　his　first
  voyage　to　western　Europe。　He　travelled　by　way　of　Berlin　and
  went　to　Holland　and　to　England。　As　a　child　he　had　almost
  been　drowned　sailing　a　homemade　boat　in　the　duck　pond　of
  his　father's　country　home。　This　passion　for　water　remained
  with　him　to　the　end　of　his　life。　In　a　practical　way　it　showed
  itself　in　his　wish　to　give　his　land…locked　domains　access　to
  the　open　sea。
  While　the　unpopular　and　harsh　young　ruler　was　away
  from　home；　the　friends　of　the　old　Russian　ways　in　Moscow　set
  to　work　to　undo　all　his　reforms。　A　sudden　rebellion　among
  his　life…guards；　the　Streltsi　regiment；　forced　Peter　to　hasten
  home　by　the　fast　mail。　He　appointed　himself　executioner…in…
  chief　and　the　Streltsi　were　hanged　and　quartered　and　killed　to
  the　last　man。　Sister　Sophia；　who　had　been　the　head　of　the
  rebellion；　was　locked　up　in　a　cloister　and　the　rule　of　Peter　be…
  gan　in　earnest。　This　scene　was　repeated　in　the　year　1716　when
  Peter　had　gone　on　his　second　western　trip。　That　time　the
  reactionaries　followed　the　leadership　of　Peter's　half…witted
  son；　Alexis。　Again　the　Tsar　returned　in　great　haste。　Alexis
  was　beaten　to　death　in　his　prison　cell　and　the　friends　of　the
  old　fashioned　Byzantine　ways　marched　thousands　of　dreary
  miles　to　their　final　destination　in　the　Siberian　lead　mines。
  After　that；　no　further　outbreaks　of　popular　discontent　took
  place。　Until　the　time　of　his　death；　Peter　could　reform　in　peace。
  It　is　not　easy　to　give　you　a　list　of　his　reforms　in　chronological
  order。　The　Tsar　worked　with　furious　haste。　He　followed
  no　system。　He　issued　his　decrees　with　such　rapidity　that　it　is
  difficult　to　keep　count。　Peter　seemed　to　feel　that　everything
  that　had　ever　happened　before　was　entirely　wrong。　The　whole
  of　Russia　therefore　must　be　changed　within　the　shortest　possible
  time。　When　he　died　he　left　behind　a　well…trained　army　of
  200；000　men　and　a　navy　of　fifty　ships。　The　old　system　of　government
  had　been　abolished　over　night。　The　Duma；　or　convention
  of　Nobles；　had　been　dismissed　and　in　its　stead；　the　Tsar
  had　surrounded　himself　with　an　advisory　board　of　state　officials；
  called　the　Senate。
  Russia　was　divided　into　eight　large　‘‘governments''　or　provinces。
  Roads　were　constructed。　Towns　were　built。　Industries
  were　created　wherever　it　pleased　the　Tsar；　without　any　regard
  for　the　presence　of　raw　material。　Canals　were　dug　and　mines
  were　opened　in　the　mountains　of　the　east。　In　this　land　of　illiterates；
  schools　were　founded　and　establishments　of　higher　learning；
  together　with　Universities　and　hospitals　and　professional
  schools。　Dutch　naval　engineers　and　tradesmen　and　artisans
  from　all　over　the　world　were　encouraged　to　move　to　Russia。
  Printing　shops　were　established；　but　all　books　must　be　first　read
  by　the　imperial　censors。　The　duties　of　each　class　of　society
  were　carefully　written　down　in　a　new　law　and　the　entire　system
  of　civil　and　criminal　laws　was　gathered　into　a　series　of　printed
  volumes。　The　old　Russian　costumes　were　abolished　by　Imperial
  decree；　and　policemen；　armed　with　scissors；　watching
  all　the　country　roads；　changed　the　long…haired　Russian　mou…
  jiks　suddenly　into　a　pleasing　imitation　of　smooth…shaven　west。
  Europeans。
  In　religious　matters；　the　Tsar　tolerated　no　division　of
  power。　There　must　be　no　chance　of　a　rivalry　between　an
  Emperor　and　a　Pope　as　had　happened　in　Europe。　In　the　year
  1721；　Peter　made　himself　head　of　the　Russian　Church。　The
  Patriarchate　of　Moscow　was　abolished　and　the　Holy　Synod
  made　its　appearance　as　the　highest　source　of　authority　in　all
  matters　of　the　Established　Church。
  Since；　however；　these　many　reforms　could　not　be　success…
  ful　while　the　old　Russian　elements　had　a　rallying　point　in　the
  town　of　Moscow；　Peter　decided　to　move　his　government　to　a
  new　capital。　Amidst　the　unhealthy　marshes　of　the　Baltic　Sea
  the　Tsar　built　this　new　city。　He　began　to　reclaim　the　land　in
  the　year　1703。　Forty　thousand　peasants　worked　for　years
  to　lay　the　foundations　for　this　Imperial　city。　The　Swedes
  attacked　Peter　and　tried　to　destroy　his　town　and　illness　and
  misery　killed　tens　of　thousands　of　the　peasants。　But　the　work
  was　continued；　winter　and　summer；　and　the　ready…made　town
  soon　began　to　grow。　In　the　year　1712；　it　was　officially　de…
  clared　to　be　the　‘‘Imperial　Residence。''　A　dozen　years　later
  it　had　75；000　inhabitants。　Twice　a　year　the　whole　city　was
  flooded　by　the　Neva。　But　the　terrific　will…power　of　the　Tsar
  created　dykes　and　canals　and　the　floods　ceased　to　do　harm。
  When　Peter　died　in　1725　he　was　the　owner　of　the　largest　city
  in　northern　Europe。
  Of　course；　this　sudden　growth　of　so　dangerous　a　rival　had
  been　a　source　of　great　worry　to　all　the　neighbours。　From　his
  side；　Peter　had　watc