the　Cabinet　got　into　the　habit　of　ruling　England　and　Scotland
  （whose　Parliament　had　been　joined　to　that　of　England
  in　1707）　without　bothering　the　King；　who　was　apt　to　spend
  a　great　deal　of　his　time　on　the　continent。
  During　the　reign　of　George　I　and　George　II；　a　succession　of
  great　Whigs　（of　whom　one；　Sir　Robert　Walpole；　held　office　for
  twenty…one　years）　formed　the　Cabinet　Council　of　the　King。
  Their　leader　was　finally　recognised　as　the　official　leader　not
  only　of　the　actual　Cabinet　but　also　of　the　majority　party　in
  power　in　Parliament。　The　attempts　of　George　III　to　take
  matters　into　his　own　hands　and　not　to　leave　the　actual　business
  of　government　to　his　Cabinet　were　so　disastrous　that
  they　were　never　repeated。　And　from　the　earliest　years　of　the
  eighteenth　century　on；　England　enjoyed　representative　government；
  with　a　responsible　ministry　which　conducted　the　affairs
  of　the　land。
  To　be　quite　true；　this　government　did　not　represent　all
  classes　of　society。　Less　than　one　man　in　a　dozen　had　the　right
  to　vote。　But　it　was　the　foundation　for　the　modern　representative
  form　of　government。　In　a　quiet　and　orderly　fashion　it
  took　the　power　away　from　the　King　and　placed　it　in　the　hands
  of　an　ever　increasing　number　of　popular　representatives。　It　did
  not　bring　the　millenium　to　England；　but　it　saved　that　country
  from　most　of　the　revolutionary　outbreaks　which　proved　so
  disastrous　to　the　European　continent　in　the　eighteenth　and
  nineteenth　centuries。
  THE　BALANCE　OF　POWER
  IN　FRANCE　ON　THE　OTHER　HAND　THE　‘‘DIVINE
  RIGHT　OF　KINGS''　CONTINUED　WITH
  GREATER　POMP　AND　SPLENDOUR　THAN
  EVER　BEFORE　AND　THE　AMBITION　OF
  THE　RULER　WAS　ONLY　TEMPERED　BY
  THE　NEWLY　INVENTED　LAW　OF　THE
  ‘‘BALANCE　OF　POWER''
  As　a　contrast　to　the　previous　chapter；　let　me　tell　you　what
  happened　in　France　during　the　years　when　the　English　people
  were　fighting　for　their　liberty。　The　happy　combination
  of　the　right　man　in　the　right　country　at　the　right　moment　is　very
  rare　in　History。　Louis　XIV　was　a　realisation　of　this　ideal；　as
  far　as　France　was　concerned；　but　the　rest　of　Europe　would
  have　been　happier　without　him。
  The　country　over　which　the　young　king　was　called　to　rule
  was　the　most　populous　and　the　most　brilliant　nation　of　that
  day。　Louis　came　to　the　throne　when　Mazarin　and　Richelieu；
  the　two　great　Cardinals；　had　just　hammered　the　ancient　French
  Kingdom　into　the　most　strongly　centralised　state　of　the　seventeenth
  century。　He　was　himself　a　man　of　extraordinary　ability。
  We；　the　people　of　the　twentieth　century；　are　still
  surrounded　by　the　memories　of　the　glorious　age　of　the　Sun　King。
  Our　social　life　is　based　upon　the　perfection　of　manners　and　the
  elegance　of　expression　attained　at　the　court　of　Louis。　In
  international　and　diplomatic　relations；　French　is　still　the　official
  language　of　diplomacy　and　international　gatherings　because
  two　centuries　ago　it　reached　a　polished　elegance　and　a　purity
  of　expression　which　no　other　tongue　had　as　yet　been　able　to
  equal。　The　theatre　of　King　Louis　still　teaches　us　lessons
  which　we　are　only　too　slow　in　learning。　During　his　reign　the
  French　Academy　（an　invention　of　Richelieu）　came　to　occupy
  a　position　in　the　world　of　letters　which　other　countries　have
  flattered　by　their　imitation。　We　might　continue　this　list　for
  many　pages。　It　is　no　matter　of　mere　chance　that　our　modern
  bill…of…fare　is　printed　in　French。　The　very　difficult　art　of
  decent　cooking；　one　of　the　highest　expressions　of　civilisation；
  was　first　practiced　for　the　benefit　of　the　great　Monarch。　The
  age　of　Louis　XIV　was　a　time　of　splendour　and　grace　which　can
  still　teach　us　a　lot。
  Unfortunately　this　brilliant　picture　has　another　side　which
  was　far　less　encouraging。　Glory　abroad　too　often　means
  misery　at　home；　and　France　was　no　exception　to　this　rule
  Louis　XIV　succeeded　his　father　in　the　year　1643。　He　died　in
  the　year　1715。　That　means　that　the　government　of　France
  was　in　the　hands　of　one　single　man　for　seventy…two　years；
  almost　two　whole　generations。
  It　will　be　well　to　get　a　firm　grasp　of　this　idea；　‘‘one　single
  man。''　Louis　was　the　first　of　a　long　list　of　monarchs　who　in
  many　countries　established　that　particular　form　of　highly　efficient
  autocracy　which　we　call　‘‘enlightened　despotism。''　He
  did　not　like　kings　who　merely　played　at　being　rulers　and
  turned　official　affairs　into　a　pleasant　picnic。　The　Kings　of
  that　enlightened　age　worked　harder　than　any　of　their　subjects。
  They　got　up　earlier　and　went　to　bed　later　than　anybody　else；
  and　felt　their　‘‘divine　responsibility''　quite　as　strongly　as　their
  ‘‘divine　right''　which　allowed　them　to　rule　without　consulting
  their　subjects。
  Of　course；　the　king　could　not　attend　to　everything　in　person。
  He　was　obliged　to　surround　himself　with　a　few　helpers
  and　councillors。　One　or　two　generals；　some　experts　upon　foreign
  politics；　a　few　clever　financiers　and　economists　would　do
  for　this　purpose。　But　these　dignitaries　could　act　only　through
  their　Sovereign。　They　had　no　individual　existence。　To　the
  mass　of　the　people；　the　Sovereign　actually　represented　in　his
  own　sacred　person　the　government　of　their　country。　The
  glory　of　the　common　fatherland　became　the　glory　of　a　single
  dynasty。　It　meant　the　exact　opposite　of　our　own　American
  ideal。　France　was　ruled　of　and　by　and　for　the　House　of　Bourbon。
  The　disadvantages　of　such　a　system　are　clear。　The　King
  grew　to　be　everything。　Everybody　else　grew　to　be　nothing　at
  all。　The　old　and　useful　nobility　was　gradually　forced　to　give
  up　its　former　shares　in　the　government　of　the　provinces。　A　little
  Royal　bureaucrat；　his　fingers　splashed　with　ink；　sitting　behind
  the　greenish　windows　of　a　government　building　in　faraway
  Paris；　now　performed　the　task　which　a　hundred　years
  before　had　been　the　duty　of　the　feudal　Lord。　The　feudal　Lord；
  deprived　of　all　work；　moved　to　Paris　to　amuse　himself　as　best
  he　could　at　the　court。　Soon　his　estates　began　to　suffer　from
  that　very　dangerous　economic　sickness；　known　as　‘‘Absentee
  Landlordism。''　Within　a　single　generation；　the　industrious
  and　useful　feudal　administrators　had　become　the　well…mannered
  but　quite　useless　loafers　of　the　court　of　Versailles。
  Louis　was　ten　years　old　when　the　peace　of　Westphalia　was
  concluded　and　the　House　of　Habsburg；　as　a　result　of　the
  Thirty　Years　War；　lost　its　predominant　position　in　Europe。
  It　was　inevitable　that　a　man　with　his　ambition　should　use　so
  favourable　a　moment　to　gain　for　his　own　dynasty　the　honours
  which　had　formerly　been　held　by　the　Habsburgs。　In　the　year
  1660　Louis　had　married　Maria　Theresa；　daughter　of　the　King
  of　Spain。　Soon　afterward；　his　father…in…law；　Philip　IV；　one
  of　the　half…witted　Spanish　Habsburgs；　died。　At　once　Louis
  claimed　the　Spanish　Netherlands　（Belgium）　as　part　of　his
  wife's　dowry。　Such　an　acquisition　would　have　been　disastrous
  to　the　peace　of　Europe；　and　would　have　threatened　the　safety
  of　the　Protestant　states。　Under　the　leadership　of　Jan　de　Witt；
  Raadpensionaris　or　Foreign　Minister　of　the　United　Seven
  Netherlands；　the　first　great　international　alliance；　the　Triple
  Alliance　of　Sweden；　England　and　Holland；　of　the　year　1661；
  was　concluded。　It　did　not　last　long。　With　money　and　fair
  promises　Louis　bought　up　both　King　Charles　and　the　Swedish
  Estates。　Holland　was　betrayed　by　her　allies　and　was　left　to
  her　own　fate。　In　the　year　1672　the　French　invaded　the　low
  countries。　They　marched　to　the　heart　of　the　country。　For　a
  second　time　the　dikes　were　opened　and　the　Royal　Sun　of
  France　set　amidst　the　mud　of　the　Dutch　marshes。　The　peace
  of　Nimwegen　which　was　concluded　in　1678　settled　nothing　but
  merely　anticipated　another　war。
  A　second　war　of　aggression　from　1689　to　1697；　ending　with
  the　Peace　of　Ryswick；　also　failed　to　give　Louis　that　position　in
  the　affairs　of　Europe　to　which　he　aspired。　His　old　enemy；
  Jan　de　Witt；　had　been　murdered　by　the　Dutch　rabble；　but　his
  successor；　William　III　（whom　you　met　in　the　last　chapter）；
  had　checkmated　all　efforts　of　Louis　to　make　France　the　ruler　of
  Europe。
  The　great　war　for　the　Spanish　succession；　begun　in　the
  year　1701；　immediately　after　the　death　of　Charles　II；　the　last
  of　the　Spanish　Habsburgs；　and　ended　in　1713　by　the　Peace
  of　Utrecht；　remained　equally　undecided；　but　it　had　ruined　the
  treasury　of　Louis。　On　land　the　French　king　had　been　victorious；
  but　the　navies　of　England　and　Holland　had　spoiled　all
  hope　for　an　ultimate　French　victory；　besides　the　long　struggle
  had　given　birth　to　a　new　and　fundamental　principle　of　international
  politics；　which　thereafter　made　it　impossible　for　one
  single　nation　to　rule　the　whole　of　Europe　or　the　whole　of　the
  world　for　any　length　of　time。
  That　was　the　so…called　‘‘balance　of　power。''　It　was　not　a
  written　law　but　for　three　centuries　it　has　been　obeyed　as　closely
  as　are　the　laws　of　nature。　The　people　who　originated　the　idea
  maintained　that　Europe；　in　its　nationalistic　stage　of　development；
  could　o