wished　upon　his　innocent　successors；　although　only　half　begun；
  was　already　in　need　of　repair。　Alexander　VI　had　spent　every
  penny　of　the　Papal　treasury。　Leo　X；　who　succeeded　Julius
  in　the　year　1513；　was　on　the　verge　of　bankruptcy。　He　reverted
  to　an　old　method　of　raising　ready　cash。　He　began　to　sell
  ‘‘indulgences。''　An　indulgence　was　a　piece　of　parchment　which
  in　return　for　a　certain　sum　of　money；　promised　a　sinner　a　decrease
  of　the　time　which　he　would　have　to　spend　in　purgatory。
  It　was　a　perfectly　correct　thing　according　to　the　creed　of　the
  late　Middle　Ages。　Since　the　church　had　the　power　to　forgive
  the　sins　of　those　who　truly　repented　before　they　died；　the
  church　also　had　the　right　to　shorten；　through　its　intercession
  with　the　Saints；　the　time　during　which　the　soul　must　be　punfied
  in　the　shadowy　realms　of　Purgatory。
  It　was　unfortunate　that　these　Indulgences　must　be　sold　for
  money。　But　they　offered　an　easy　form　of　revenue　and　besides；
  those　who　were　too　poor　to　pay；　received　theirs　for　nothing。
  Now　it　happened　in　the　year　1517　that　the　exclusive　territory
  for　the　sale　of　indulgences　in　Saxony　was　given　to　a
  Dominican　monk　by　the　name　of　Johan　Tetzel。　Brother
  Johan　was　a　hustling　salesman。　To　tell　the　truth　he　was　a
  little　too　eager。　His　business　methods　outraged　the　pious
  people　of　the　little　duchy。　And　Luther；　who　was　an　honest
  fellow；　got　so　angry　that　he　did　a　rash　thing。　On　the　31st　of
  October　of　the　year　1517；　he　went　to　the　court　church　and　upon
  the　doors　thereof　he　posted　a　sheet　of　paper　with　ninety…five
  statements　（or　theses）；　attacking　the　sale　of　indulgences。
  These　statements　had　been　written　in　Latin。　Luther　had　no
  intention　of　starting　a　riot。　He　was　not　a　revolutionist。　He
  objected　to　the　institution　of　the　Indulgences　and　he　wanted　his
  fellow　professors　to　know　what　he　thought　about　them。　But
  this　was　still　a　private　affair　of　the　clerical　and　professorial
  world　and　there　was　no　appeal　to　the　prejudices　of　the　community
  of　laymen。
  Unfortunately；　at　that　moment　when　the　whole　world　had
  begun　to　take　an　interest　in　the　religious　affairs　of　the　day
  it　was　utterly　impossible　to　discuss　anything；　without　at　once
  creating　a　serious　mental　disturbance。　In　less　than　two
  months；　all　Europe　was　discussing　the　ninety…five　theses　of
  the　Saxon　monk。　Every　one　must　take　sides。　Every　obscure
  little　theologian　must　print　his　own　opinion。　The　papal
  authorities　began　to　be　alarmed。　They　ordered　the　Wittenberg
  professor　to　proceed　to　Rome　and　give　an　account　of　his　action。
  Luther　wisely　remembered　what　had　happened　to　Huss。　He
  stayed　in　Germany　and　he　was　punished　with　excommunication。
  Luther　burned　the　papal　bull　in　the　presence　of　an
  admiring　multitude　and　from　that　moment；　peace　between　himself
  and　the　Pope　was　no　longer　possible。
  Without　any　desire　on　his　part；　Luther　had　become　the
  leader　of　a　vast　army　of　discontented　Christians。　German
  patriots　like　Ulrich　von　Hutten；　rushed　to　his　defence。　The
  students　of　Wittenberg　and　Erfurt　and　Leipzig　offered　to
  defend　him　should　the　authorities　try　to　imprison　him。　The
  Elector　of　Saxony　reassured　the　eager　young　men。　No　harm
  would　befall　Luther　as　long　as　he　stayed　on　Saxon　ground。
  All　this　happened　in　the　year　1520。　Charles　V　was　twenty
  years　old　and　as　the　ruler　of　half　the　world；　was　forced　to
  remain　on　pleasant　terms　with　the　Pope。　He　sent　out　calls
  for　a　Diet　or　general　assembly　in　the　good　city　of　Worms　on
  the　Rhine　and　commanded　Luther　to　be　present　and　give　an
  account　of　his　extraordinary　behaviour。　Luther；　who　now
  was　the　national　hero　of　the　Germans；　went。　He　refused　to
  take　back　a　single　word　of　what　he　had　ever　written　or　said。
  His　conscience　was　controlled　only　by　the　word　of　God。　He
  would　live　and　die　for　his　conscience
  The　Diet　of　Worms；　after　due　deliberation；　declared
  Luther　an　outlaw　before　God　and　man；　and　forbade　all　Germans
  to　give　him　shelter　or　food　or　drink；　or　to　read　a　single
  word　of　the　books　which　the　dastardly　heretic　had　written。
  But　the　great　reformer　was　in　no　danger。　By　the　majority
  of　the　Germans　of　the　north　the　edict　was　denounced　as　a　most
  unjust　and　outrageous　document。　For　greater　safety；　Luther
  was　hidden　in　the　Wartburg；　a　castle　belonging　to　the　Elector
  of　Saxony；　and　there　he　defied　all　papal　authority　by　translating
  the　entire　Bible　into　the　German　language；　that　all　the
  people　might　read　and　know　the　word　of　God　for　themselves。
  By　this　time；　the　Reformation　was　no　longer　a　spiritual
  and　religious　affair。　Those　who　hated　the　beauty　of　the　modern
  church　building　used　this　period　of　unrest　to　attack　and
  destroy　what　they　did　not　like　because　they　did　not　understand
  it。　Impoverished　knights　tried　to　make　up　for　past　losses　by
  grabbing　the　territory　which　belonged　to　the　monasteries。
  Discontented　princes　made　use　of　the　absence　of　the　Emperor
  to　increase　their　own　power。　The　starving　peasants；　following
  the　leadership　of　half…crazy　agitators；　made　the　best　of
  the　opportunity　and　attacked　the　castles　of　their　masters　and
  plundered　and　murdered　and　burned　with　the　zeal　of　the　old
  Crusaders。
  A　veritable　reign　of　disorder　broke　loose　throughout　the
  Empire。　Some　princes　became　Protestants　（as　the　‘‘protesting''
  adherents　of　Luther　were　called）　and　persecuted　their
  Catholic　subjects。　Others　remained　Catholic　and　hanged　their
  Protestant　subjects。　The　Diet　of　Speyer　of　the　year　1526
  tried　to　settle　this　difficult　question　of　allegiance　by　ordering
  that　‘‘the　subjects　should　all　be　of　the　same　religious　denomination
  as　their　princes。''　This　turned　Germany　into　a　checkerboard
  of　a　thousand　hostile　little　duchies　and　principalities　and
  created　a　situation　which　prevented　the　normal　political
  growth　for　hundreds　of　years。
  In　February　of　the　year　1546　Luther　died　and　was　put
  to　rest　in　the　same　church　where　twenty…nine　years　before　he
  had　proclaimed　his　famous　objections　to　the　sale　of　Indulgences。
  In　less　than　thirty　years；　the　indifferent；　joking　and
  laughing　world　of　the　Renaissance　had　been　transformed　into
  the　arguing；　quarrelling；　back…biting；　debating…society　of　the
  Reformation。　The　universal　spiritual　empire　of　the　Popes
  came　to　a　sudden　end　and　the　whole　Western　Europe　was
  turned　into　a　battle…field；　where　Protestants　and　Catholics
  killed　each　other　for　the　greater　glory　of　certain　theological
  doctrines　which　are　as　incomprehensible　to　the　present　generation
  as　the　mysterious　inscriptions　of　the　ancient　Etruscans。
  RELIGIOUS　WARFARE
  THE　AGE　OF　THE　GREAT　RELIGIOUS
  CONTROVERSIES
  THE　sixteenth　and　seventeenth　centuries　were　the　age　of
  religious　controversy。
  If　you　will　notice　you　will　find　that　almost　everybody
  around　you　is　forever　‘‘talking　economics''　and　discussing
  wages　and　hours　of　labor　and　strikes　in　their　relation　to　the
  life　of　the　community；　for　that　is　the　main　topic　of　interest
  of　our　own　time。
  The　poor　little　children　of　the　year　1600　or　1650　fared
  worse。　They　never　heard　anything　but　‘‘religion。''　Their
  heads　were　filled　with　‘‘predestination；''　‘‘transubstantition；''
  ‘‘free　will；''　and　a　hundred　other　queer　words；　expressing
  obscure　points　of　‘‘the　true　faith；''　whether　Catholic　or
  Protestant。　According　to　the　desire　of　their　parents　they　were
  baptised　Catholics　or　Lutherans　or　Calvinists　or　Zwinglians
  or　Anabaptists。　They　learned　their　theology　from　the　Augsburg
  catechism；　composed　by　Luther；　or　from　the　‘‘institutes
  of　Christianity；''　written　by　Calvin；　or　they　mumbled　the
  Thirty…Nine　Articles　of　Faith　which　were　printed　in　the　English
  Book　of　Common　Prayer；　and　they　were　told　that　these
  alone　represented　the　‘‘True　Faith。''
  They　heard　of　the　wholesale　theft　of　church　property
  perpetrated　by　King　Henry　VIII；　the　much…married　monarch　of
  England；　who　made　himself　the　supreme　head　of　the　English
  church；　and　assumed　the　old　papal　rights　of　appointing　bishops
  and　priests。　They　had　a　nightmare　whenever　some　one
  mentioned　the　Holy　Inquisition；　with　its　dungeons　and　its
  many　torture　chambers；　and　they　were　treated　to　equally　horrible
  stories　of　how　a　mob　of　outraged　Dutch　Protestants　had
  got　hold　of　a　dozen　defenceless　old　priests　and　hanged　them
  for　the　sheer　pleasure　of　killing　those　who　professed
  a　different　faith。　It　was　unfortunate　that　the　two
  contending　parties　were　so　equally　matched。　Otherwise
  the　struggle　would　have　come　to　a　quick　solution。
  Now　it　dragged　on　for　eight　generations；　and
  it　grew　so　complicated　that　I　can　only　tell　you　the　most
  important　details；　and　must　ask　you　to　get　the
  rest　from　one　of　the　many　histories　of　the　Reformation。
  The　great　reform　movement　of　the　Protestants
  had　been　followed　by　a　thoroughgoing　reform
  within　the　bosom　of　the　Church。　Those　popes　who
  had　been　merely　amateur　humanists　and　dealers　in　Roman
  and　Greek　antiquities；　disappeared　from　the　scene　and
  their　place　was　taken　by　se