his　feverish　imagination　saw　a　ghost。
  In　judging　these　good　people；　however；　it　is　wise　to　remember
  the　terrible　disadvantages　under　which　they　lived。
  They　were　really　barbarians　who　posed　as　civilised　people。
  Charlemagne　and　Otto　the　Great　were　called　‘‘Roman　Emperors；''
  but　they　had　as　little　resemblance　to　a　real　Roman　Emperor
  （say　Augustus　or　Marcus　Aurelius）　as　‘‘King''　Wumba
  Wumba　of　the　upper　Congo　has　to　the　highly　educated　rulers
  of　Sweden　or　Denmark。　They　were　savages　who　lived　amidst
  glorious　ruins　but　who　did　not　share　the　benefits　of　the
  civilisation　which　their　fathers　and　grandfathers　had　destroyed。
  They　knew　nothing。　They　were　ignorant　of　almost　every　fact
  which　a　boy　of　twelve　knows　to…day。　They　were　obliged　to　go
  to　one　single　book　for　all　their　information。　That　was　the
  Bible。　But　those　parts　of　the　Bible　which　have　influenced　the
  history　of　the　human　race　for　the　better　are　those　chapters　of
  the　New　Testament　which　teach　us　the　great　moral　lessons　of
  love；　charity　and　forgiveness。　As　a　handbook　of　astronomy；
  zoology；　botany；　geometry　and　all　the　other　sciences；　the　venerable
  book　is　not　entirely　reliable。　In　the　twelfth　century；　a
  second　book　was　added　to　the　mediaeval　library；　the　great
  encyclopaedia　of　useful　knowledge；　compiled　by　Aristotle；　the
  Greek　philosopher　of　the　fourth　century　before　Christ。　Why
  the　Christian　church　should　have　been　willing　to　accord　such
  high　honors　to　the　teacher　of　Alexander　the　Great；　whereas
  they　condemned　all　other　Greek　philosophers　on　account　of
  their　heathenish　doctrines；　I　really　do　not　know。　But　next　to
  the　Bible；　Aristotle　was　recognized　as　the　only　reliable　teacher
  whose　works　could　be　safely　placed　into　the　hands　of　true
  Christians。
  His　works　had　reached　Europe　in　a　somewhat　roundabout
  way。　They　had　gone　from　Greece　to　Alexandria。　They　had
  then　been　translated　from　the　Greek　into　the　Arabic　language
  by　the　Mohammedans　who　conquered　Egypt　in　the　seventh
  century。　They　had　followed　the　Moslem　armies　into　Spain　and
  the　philosophy　of　the　great　Stagirite　（Aristotle　was　a　native　of
  Stagira　in　Macedonia）　was　taught　in　the　Moorish　universities
  of　Cordova。　The　Arabic　text　was　then　translated　into　Latin
  by　the　Christian　students　who　had　crossed　the　Pyrenees　to　get
  a　liberal　education　and　this　much　travelled　version　of　the　famous
  books　was　at　last　taught　at　the　different　schools　of　northwestern
  Europe。　It　was　not　very　clear；　but　that　made　it　all
  the　more　interesting。
  With　the　help　of　the　Bible　and　Aristotle；　the　most　brilliant
  men　of　the　Middle　Ages　now　set　to　work　to　explain　all　things
  between　Heaven　and　Earth　in　their　relation　to　the　expressed
  will　of　God。　These　brilliant　men；　the　so…called　Scholasts　or
  Schoolmen；　were　really　very　intelligent；　but　they　had　obtained
  their　information　exclusively　from　books；　and　never　from　actual
  observation。　If　they　wanted　to　lecture　on　the　sturgeon
  or　on　caterpillars；　they　read　the　Old　and　New　Testaments　and
  Aristotle；　and　told　their　students　everything　these　good　books
  had　to　say　upon　the　subject　of　caterpillars　and　sturgeons。
  They　did　not　go　out　to　the　nearest　river　to　catch　a　sturgeon。
  They　did　not　leave　their　libraries　and　repair　to　the　backyard
  to　catch　a　few　caterpillars　and　look　at　these　animals　and　study
  them　in　their　native　haunts。　Even　such　famous　scholars　as
  Albertus　Magnus　and　Thomas　Aquinas　did　not　inquire　whether
  the　sturgeons　in　the　land　of　Palestine　and　the　caterpillars　of
  Macedonia　might　not　have　been　different　from　the　sturgeons
  and　the　caterpillars　of　western　Europe。
  When　occasionally　an　exceptionally　curious　person　like
  Roger　Bacon　appeared　in　the　council　of　the　learned　and　began
  to　experiment　with　magnifying　glasses　and　funny　little　telescopes
  and　actually　dragged　the　sturgen　and　the　caterpillar
  into　the　lecturing　room　and　proved　that　they　were　different
  from　the　creatures　described　by　the　Old　Testament　and　by
  Aristotle；　the　Schoolmen　shook　their　dignified　heads。　Bacon
  was　going　too　far。　When　he　dared　to　suggest　that　an　hour
  of　actual　observation　was　worth　more　than　ten　years　with
  Aristotle　and　that　the　works　of　that　famous　Greek　might　as
  well　have　remained　untranslated　for　all　the　good　they　had　ever
  done；　the　scholasts　went　to　the　police　and　said；　‘‘This　man　is
  a　danger　to　the　safety　of　the　state。　He　wants　us　to　study
  Greek　that　we　may　read　Aristotle　in　the　original。　Why　should
  he　not　be　contented　with　our　Latin…Arabic　translation　which
  has　satisfied　our　faithful　people　for　so　many　hundred　years？
  Why　is　he　so　curious　about　the　insides　of　fishes　and　the　insides
  of　insects？　He　is　probably　a　wicked　magician　trying　to　upset
  the　established　order　of　things　by　his　Black　Magic。''　And　so
  well　did　they　plead　their　cause　that　the　frightened　guardians
  of　the　peace　forbade　Bacon　to　write　a　single　word　for　more
  than　ten　years。　When　he　resumed　his　studies　he　had　learned
  a　lesson。　He　wrote　his　books　in　a　queer　cipher　which　made　it
  impossible　for　his　contemporaries　to　read　them；　a　trick　which
  became　common　as　the　Church　became　more　desperate　in　its
  attempts　to　prevent　people　from　asking　questions　which　would
  lead　to　doubts　and　infidelity。
  This；　however；　was　not　done　out　of　any　wicked　desire　to
  keep　people　ignorant。　The　feeling　which　prompted　the　heretic
  hunters　of　that　day　was　really　a　very　kindly　one。　They　firmly
  believednay；　they　knewthat　this　life　was　but　the　preparation
  for　our　real　existence　in　the　next　world。　They　felt　convinced
  that　too　much　knowledge　made　people　uncomfortable；
  filled　their　minds　with　dangerous　opinions　and　led　to　doubt
  and　hence　to　perdition。　A　mediaeval　Schoolman　who　saw　one
  of　his　pupils　stray　away　from　the　revealed　authority　of　the
  Bible　and　Aristotle；　that　he　might　study　things　for　himself；　felt
  as　uncomfortable　as　a　loving　mother　who　sees　her　young　child
  approach　a　hot　stove。　She　knows　that　he　will　burn　his　little
  fingers　if　he　is　allowed　to　touch　it　and　she　tries　to　keep　him
  back；　if　necessary　she　will　use　force。　But　she　really　loves
  the　child　and　if　he　will　only　obey　her；　she　will　be　as　good　to　him
  as　she　possibly　can　be。　In　the　same　way　the　mediaeval　guardians
  of　people's　souls；　while　they　were　strict　in　all　matters
  pertaining　to　the　Faith；　slaved　day　and　night　to　render　the
  greatest　possible　service　to　the　members　of　their　flock。　They
  held　out　a　helping　hand　whenever　they　could　and　the　society
  of　that　day　shows　the　influence　of　thousands　of　good　men　and
  pious　women　who　tried　to　make　the　fate　of　the　average　mortal
  as　bearable　as　possible。
  A　serf　was　a　serf　and　his　position　would　never　change。　But
  the　Good　Lord　of　the　Middle　Ages　who　allowed　the　serf　to
  remain　a　slave　all　his　life　had　bestowed　an　immortal　soul　upon
  this　humble　creature　and　therefore　he　must　be　protected　in　his
  rights；　that　he　might　live　and　die　as　a　good　Christian。　When
  he　grew　too　old　or　too　weak　to　work　he　must　be　taken　care
  of　by　the　feudal　master　for　whom　he　had　worked。　The　serf；
  therefore；　who　led　a　monotonous　and　dreary　life；　was　never
  haunted　by　fear　of　to…morrow。　He　knew　that　he　was　‘‘safe''
  that　he　could　not　be　thrown　out　of　employment；　that　he　would
  always　have　a　roof　over　his　head　（a　leaky　roof；　perhaps；　but
  roof　all　the　same）；　and　that　he　would　always　have　something
  to　eat。
  This　feeling　of　‘‘stability''　and　of　‘‘safety''　was　found　in　all
  classes　of　society。　In　the　towns　the　merchants　and　the　artisans
  established　guilds　which　assured　every　member　of　a　steady　income。
  It　did　not　encourage　the　ambitious　to　do　better　than
  their　neighbours。　Too　often　the　guilds　gave　protection　to
  the　‘‘slacker''　who　managed　to　‘‘get　by。''　But　they　established
  a　general　feeling　of　content　and　assurance　among　the
  labouring　classes　which　no　longer　exists　in　our　day　of　general
  competition。　The　Middle　Ages　were　familiar　with　the　dangers
  of　what　we　modern　people　call　‘‘corners；''　when　a　single　rich
  man　gets　hold　of　all　the　available　grain　or　soap　or　pickled
  herring；　and　then　forces　the　world　to　buy　from　him　at　his　own
  price。　The　authorities；　therefore；　discouraged　wholesale　trading
  and　regulated　the　price　at　which　merchants　were　allowed
  to　sell　their　goods。
  The　Middle　Ages　disliked　competition。　Why　compete　and
  fill　the　world　with　hurry　and　rivalry　and　a　multitude　of　pushing
  men；　when　the　Day　of　Judgement　was　near　at　hand；　when
  riches　would　count　for　nothing　and　when　the　good　serf　would
  enter　the　golden　gates　of　Heaven　while　the　bad　knight　was
  sent　to　do　penance　in　the　deepest　pit　of　Inferno？
  In　short；　the　people　of　the　Middle　Ages　were　asked　to　surrender
  part　of　their　liberty　of　thought　and　action；　that　they
  might　enjoy　greater　safety　from　poverty　of　the　body　and　poverty
  of　the　soul。
  And　with　a　very　few　exceptions；　they　did　not　object。　They
  firmly　believed　that　they　were　mere　visitors　upon　this　planet
  that　they　were　here　to　be　prepared　for　a　greater　and　more
  important　life。　Deli