as　a　miserable；　and　in　its　consequences　terrible；　piece　of　　knavery；　but　he　also　describes　with　unaffected　indignation　the　　disasters　which　never　cease　to　pursue　the　credulous　fool。　'A　man　hopes　　with　〃Solomon's　Key'　and　other　magical　books　to　find　the　treasures　　hidden　in　the　bosom　of　the　earth；　to　force　his　lady　to　do　his　will；　to　　find　out　the　secret　of　princes；　and　to　transport　himself　in　the　　twinkling　of　an　eye　from　Milan　to　Rome。　The　more　often　he　is　deceived；　　the　more　steadfastly　he　believes。。。。　Do　you　remember　the　time；　Signor　　Carlo；　when　a　friend　of　ours；　in　order　to　win　a　favour　of　his　beloved；　　filled　his　room　with　skulls　and　bones　like　a　churchyard？'　The　most　　loathsome　tasks　were　prescribedto　draw　three　teeth　from　a　corpse　or　a　　nail　from　its　finger；　and　the　like；　and　while　the　hocus…pocus　of　the　　incantation　was　going　on；　the　unhappy　participants　sometimes　died　of　　terror。
  Benvenuto　Cellini　did　not　die　during　the　well…known　incantation　（1532）　　in　the　Colosseum　at　Rome；　although　both　he　and　his　companions　witnessed　　no　ordinary　horrors；　the　Sicilian　priest；　who　probably　expected　to　find　　him　a　useful　coadjutor　in　the　future；　paid　him　the　compliment　as　they　　went　home　of　saying　that　he　had　never　met　a　man　of　so　sturdy　a　courage。　　Every　reader　will　make　his　own　reflections　on　the　proceedings　　themselves。　The　narcotic　fumes　and　the　fact　that　the　imaginations　of　　the　spectators　were　predisposed　for　all　possible　terrors；　are　the　chief　　points　to　be　noticed；　and　explain　why　the　lad　who　formed　one　of　the　　party；　and　on　whom　they　made　most　impression；　saw　much　more　than　the　　others。　but　it　may　be　inferred　that　Benvenuto　himself　was　the　one　whom　　it　was　wished　to　impress；　since　the　dangerous　beginning　of　the　　incantation　can　have　had　no　other　aim　than　to　arouse　curiosity。　For　　Benvenuto　had　to　think　before　the　fair　Angelica　occurred　to　him；　and　　the　magician　told　him　afterwards　that　love…making　was　folly　compared　　with　the　finding　of　treasures。　Further；　it　must　not　be　forgotten　that　　it　flattered　his　vanity　to　be　able　to　say；　'The　demons　have　kept　their　　word；　and　Angelica　came　into　my　hands；　as　they　promised；　just　a　month　　later'　（I；　cap。　68）。　Even　on　the　supposition　that　Benvenuto　gradually　　lied　himself　into　believing　the　whole　story；　it　would　still　be　　permanently　valuable　as　evidence　of　the　mode　of　thought　then　prevalent。
  As　a　rule；　however；　the　Italian　artists；　even　'the　odd；　capricious；　　and　eccentric'　among　them；　had　little　to　do　with　magic。　One　of　them；　in　　his　anatomical　studies；　may　have　cut　himself　a　jacket　out　of　the　skin　　of　a　corpse；　but　at　the　advice　of　his　confessor　he　put　it　again　into　　the　grave。　Indeed　the　frequent　study　of　anatomy　probably　did　more　than　　anything　else　to　destroy　the　belief　in　the　magical　influence　of　various　　parts　of　the　body；　while　at　the　same　time　the　incessant　observation　and　　representation　of　the　human　form　made　the　artist　familiar　with　a　magic　　of　a　wholly　different　sort。
  In　general；　notwithstanding　the　instances　which　have　been　quoted；　magic　　seems　to　have　been　markedly　on　the　decline　at　the　beginning　of　the　　sixteenth　centurythat　is　to　say；　at　a　time　when　it　first　began　to　　flourish　vigorously　out　of　Italy；　and　thus　the　tours　of　Italian　　sorcerers　and　astrologers　in　the　North　seem　not　to　have　begun　till　　their　credit　at　home　was　thoroughly　impaired。　In　the　fourteenth　century　　it　was　thought　necessary　carefully　to　watch　the　lake　on　Mount　Pilatus；　　near　Scariotto；　to　hinder　the　magicians　from　there　consecrating　their　　books。　In　the　fifteenth　century　we　find；　for　example；　that　the　offer　　was　made　to　produce　a　storm　of　rain；　in　order　to　frighten　away　a　　besieged　army；　and　even　then　the　commander　of　the　besieged　town；　　Niccolo　Vitelli　in　Citta　di　Castello　had　the　good　sense　to　dismiss　the　　sorcerers　as　godless　persons。　In　the　sixteenth　century　no　more　　instances　of　this　official　kind　appear；　although　in　private　life　the　　magicians　were　still　active。　To　this　time　belongs　the　classic　figure　of　　German　sorcery；　Dr。　Johann　Faust；　the　Italian　ideal；　on　the　other　hand；　　Guido　Bonatto；　dates　back　to　the　thirteenth　century。
  It　must　nevertheless　be　added　that　the　decrease　of　the　belief　in　magic　　was　not　necessarily　accompanied　by　an　increase　of　the　belief　in　a　moral　　order；　but　that　in　many　cases；　like　the　decaying　faith　in　astrology；　　the　delusion　left　behind　it　nothing　but　a　stupid　fatalism。
  One　or　two　minor　forms　of　this　superstition；　pyromancy；　chiromancy　and　　others；　which　obtained　some　credit　as　the　belief　in　sorcery　and　　astrology　was　declining；　may　be　here　passed　over；　and　even　the　pseudo…　science　of　physiognomy　has　by　no　means　the　interest　which　the　name　　might　lead　us　to　expect。　For　it　did　not　appear　as　the　sister　and　ally　　of　art　and　psychology；　but　as　a　new　form　of　fatalistic　superstition；　　and；　what　it　may　have　been　among　the　Arabs；　as　the　rival　of　astrology。　　The　author　of　a　physiognomical　treatise；　Bartolommeo　Cocle；　who　styled　　himself　a　'metoposcopist；'　and　whose　science；　according　to　Giovio；　　seemed　like　one　of　the　most　respectable　of　the　free　arts；　was　not　　content　with　the　prophecies　which　he　made　to　the　many　people　who　daily　　consulted　him；　but　wrote　also　a　most　serious　'catalogue　of　such　whom　　great　dangers　to　life　were　awaiting。'　Giovio；　although　grown　old　in　the　　free　thought　of　Rome　'in　hac　luce　romana'is　of　opinion　that　the　　predictions　contained　therein　had　only　too　much　truth　in　them　We　learn　　from　the　same　source　how　the　people　aimed　at　in　these　and　similar　　prophecies　took　vengeance　on　a　seer。　Giovanni　Bentivoglio　caused　Lucas　　Gauricus　to　be　five　times　swung　to　and　fro　against　the　wall；　on　a　rope　　hanging　from　a　lofty；　winding　staircase；　because　Lucas　had　foretold　to　　him　the　loss　of　his　authority。　Ermes　Bentivoglio　sent　an　assassin　after　　Cocle；　because　the　unlucky　metopOscopist　had　unwillingly　prophesied　to　　him　that　he　would　die　an　exile　in　battle。　The　murderer　seems　to　have　　derided　the　dying　man　in　his　last　moments；　saying　that　Cocle　himself　　had　foretold　him　he　would　shortly　commit　an　infamous　murder。　The　　reviver　of　chiromancy；　Antioco　Tiberto　of　Cesena；　came　by　an　equally　　miserable　end　at　the　hands　of　Pandolfo　Malatesta　of　Rimini；　to　whom　he　　had　prophesied　the　worst　that　a　tyrant　can　imagine；　namely；　death　in　　exile　and　in　the　most　grievous　poverty。　Tiberto　was　a　man　of　　intelligence；　who　was　supposed　to　give　his　answers　less　according　to　　any　methodical　chiromancy　than　by　means　of　his　shrewd　knowledge　of　　mankind；　and　his　high　culture　won　for　him　the　respect　of　those　scholars　　who　thought　little　of　his　divination。
  Alchemy；　in　conclusion；　which　is　not　mentioned　in　antiquity　till　quite　　late　under　Diocletian；　played　only　a　very　subordinate　part　at　the　best　　period　of　the　Renaissance。　Italy　went　through　the　disease　earlier；　when　　Petrarch　in　the　fourteenth　century　confessed；　in　his　polemic　against　　it；　that　gold…making　was　a　general　practice。　Since　then　that　particular　　kind　of　faith；　devotion；　and　isolation　which　the　practice　of　alchemy　　required　became　more　and　more　rare　in　Italy；　just　when　Italian　and　　other　adepts　began　to　make　their　full　profit　out　of　the　great　lords　in　　the　North。　Under　Leo　X　the　few　Italians　who　busied　themselves　with　it　　were　called　'ingenia　curiosa；'　and　Aurelio　Augurelli；　who　dedicated　to　　Leo　X；　the　great　despiser　of　gold；　his　didactic　poem　on　the　making　of　　the　metal；　is　said　to　have　received　in　return　a　beautiful　but　empty　　purse。　The　mystic　science　which　besides　gold　sought　for　the　omnipotent　　philosopher's　stone；　is　a　late　northern　growth；　which　had　its　rise　in　　the　theories　of　Paracelsus　and　others。
  General　Spirit　of　Doubt
  With　these　superstitions；　as　with　ancient　modes　of　thought　generally；　　the　decline　in　the　belief　of　immortality　stands　in　the　closest　　connection。　This　questiOn　has　the　widest　and　deepest　relations　with　the　　whole　development　of　the　modern　spirit。
  One　great　source　of　doubt　in　immortality　was　the　inward　wish　to　be　　under　no　obligations　to　the　hated　Church。　We　have　seen　that　the　Church　　branded　those　who　thus　felt　as　Epicureans。　In　the　hour　of　death　many　　doubtless　called　for　the　sacraments；　but　multitudes　during　their　whole　　lives；　and　especially　during　their　most　vigorous　years；　lived　and　acted　　on　the　negative　supposition。　That　unbelief　on　this　particular　point　　must　often　have　led　to　a　general　skepticism；　is　evident　of　itself；　and　　is　attested　by　abundant　historical　proof。　These　are　the　men　of　whom　　Ariosto　says：　'Their　faith　goes　no　higher　than　the　roof。'　In　Italy；　and　　especially　in　Florence；　it　was　possible　to　live　as　an　open　and　　notorious　unbeliever；　if　a　man　only　refrained　from　direct　acts　of　　hostility　against　the　Church。　The　confessor；　for　instance；　who　was　sent　　to　prepare　a　political　offender　for　death；　began　by　inquiring　whether　　the　prisoner　was　a　believer；　'for　there　was　a　false　report　that　he　had　　no　belief　at　all。'
  The　unhappy　transgressor　here　referred　tothe　same　Pierpaolo　Boscoli　　who　has　been　already　mentionedwho　in　1513　took　part　in　an　attempt　　against　the　newly　restored　family　of　the　Medici；　is　a　faithful　mirror　　of　the　religious　confusion　then　prevalent。　Beginning　as　a　partisan　of　　Savonarola；　he　became　afterwards　possessed　with　an　enthusiasm　for　the　　ancie