held　the　first　place。　The　want　of　decent　inns　in　　the　country　may　also　be　explained　by　the　general　insecurity　of　life　and　　property。
  To　the　first　half　of　the　sixteenth　century　belongs　the　manual　of　　politeness　which　Giovanni　della　Casa；　a　Florentine　by　birth；　published　　under　the　title　'Il　Galateo。'　Not　only　cleanliness　in　the　strict　sense　　of　the　word；　but　the　dropping　of　all　the　habits　which　we　consider　　unbecoming；　is　here　prescribed　with　the　same　unfailing　tact　with　which　　the　moralist　discerns　the　highest　ethical　truths。　In　the　literature　of　　other　countries　the　same　lessons　are　taught；　though　less　　systematically；　by　the　indirect　influence　of　repulsive　descriptions。
  In　other　respects　also；　the　'Galateo'　is　a　graceful　and　in…　telligent　　guide　to　good　mannersa　school　of　tact　and　delicacy。　Even　now　it　may　　be　read　with　no　small　profit　by　people　of　all　classes；　and　the　　politeness　of　European　nations　is　not　likely　to　outgrow　its　precepts。　　So　far　as　tact　is　an　affair　of　the　heart；　it　has　been　inborn　in　some　　men　from　the　dawn　of　civilization；　and　acquired　through　force　of　will　　by　others；　but　the　Italians　were　the　first　to　recognize　it　as　a　　universal　social　duty　and　a　mark　of　culture　and　education。　And　Italy　　itself　had　altered　much　in　the　course　of　two　centuries。　We　feel　at　　their　close　that　the　time　for　practical　jokes　between　friends　and　　acquaintances　for　'burle'　and　'beffe'was　over　in　good　society；　that　　the　people　had　emerged　from　the　walls　of　the　cities　and　had　learned　a　　cosmopolitan　politeness　and　consideration。　We　shall　speak　later　on　of　　the　intercourse　of　society　in　the　narrower　sense。
  Outward　life；　indeed；　in　the　fifteenth　and　the　early　part　of　the　　sixteenth　centuries；　was　polished　and　ennobled　as　among　？no　other　　people　in　the　world。　A　countless　number　of　those　small　things　and　great　　things　which　combine　to　make　up　what　we：　mean　by　comfort；　we　know　to　　have　first　appeared　in　Italy。　In　｜　the　well…paved　streets　of　the　　Italian　cities；　driving　was　universal；　while　elsewhere　in　Europe　　walking　or　riding　was　the　custom；　and　at　all　events　no　one　drove　for　　amusement。　We　read　in　the　novelists　of　soft；　elastic　beads；　of　costly　　carpets　and　bedroom　furniture；　of　which　we　hear　nothing　in　other　　countries。　We　often　hear　especially　of　the　abundance　and　beauty　of　the　　linen。　Much　of　all　this　is　drawn　within　the　sphere　of　art。　We　note　with　　admiration　the　thousand　ways　in　which　art　ennobles　luxury；　not　only　　adorning　the　massive　sideboard　or　the　light　brackets　with　noble　vases；　　clothing　the　walls　with　the　movable　splendor　of　tapestry；　and　covering　　the　toilet…table　with　numberless　graceful　trifles；　but　absorbing　whole　　branches　of　mechanical　workespecially　carpenteringinto　its　　province。　All　Western　Europe；　as　soon　as　its　wealth　enabled　it　to　do　　so；　set　to　work　in　the　same　way　at　the　close　of　the　Middle　Ages。　But　　its　efforts　produced　either　childish　and　fantastic　toy…work；　or　were　　bound　by　the　chains　of　a　narrow　and　purely　Gothic　art；　while　the　　Renaissance　moved　freely；　entering　into　the　spirit　of　every　task　it　　undertook　and　working　for　a　far　larger　circle　of　patrons　and　admirers　　than　the　northern　artists。　The　rapid　victory　of　Italian　decorative　art　　over　northern　in　the　course　sixteenth　century　is　due　partly　to　this　　fact；　though　the　result　of　wider　and　more　general　causes。
  Language　and　Society
  The　higher　forms　of　social　intercourse；　which　here　meet　us　as　a　work　of　　artas　a　conscious　product　and　one　of　the　highest　products　of　national　　life　have　no　more　important　foundation　and　condition　than　language。　In　　the　most　flourishing　period　of　the　Middle　Ages；　the　nobility　of　Western　　Europe　had　sought　to　establish　a　'courtly'　speech　for　social　　intercourse　as　well　as　for　poetry。　In　Italy；　too；　where　the　dialects　　differed　so　greatly　from　one　another；　we　find　in　the　thirteenth　century　　a　so…called　'Curiale；'　which　was　common　to　the　courts　and　to　the　poets。　　It　is　of　decisive　importance　for　Italy　that　the　attempt　was　there　　seriously　and　deliberately　made　to　turn　this　into　the　language　of　　literature　and　society。　The　introduction　to　the　'Cento　Novelle　　Antiche；'　which　were　put　into　their　present　shape　before　l　300；　avows　　this　object　openly。　Language　is　here　considered　apart　from　its　uses　in　　poetry；　its　highest　function　is　clear；　simple；　intelligent　utterance　in　　short　speeches；　epigrams；　and　answers。　This　faculty　was　admired　in　　Italy；　as　nowhere　else　but　among　the　Greeks　and　Arabs：　'how　many　in　the　　course　long　life　have　scarcely　produced　a　single　〃bel　parlare。〃　'
  But　the　matter　was　rendered　more　difficult　by　the　diversity　of　the　　aspects　under　which　it　was　considered。　The　writings　of　Dante　transport　　us　into　the　midst　of　the　struggle。　His　work　'On　the　Italian　Language'　　is　not　only　of　the　utmost　importance　for　the　subject　itself；　but　is　　also　the　first　complete　treatise　on　any　modern　language。　His　method　and　　results　belong　to　the　history　of　linguistic　science；　in　which　they　will　　always　hold　a　high　place。　We　must　here　content　ourselves　with　the　　remark　that　long　before　the　appearance　of　this　book　the　subject　must　　have　been　one　of　daily　and　pressing　importance；　various　dialects　of　　Italy　had　long　been　the　object　of　study　and　dispute；　and　that　the　birth　　of　the　one　ideal　was　not　accomplished　without　many　throes。
  Nothing　certainly　contributed　so　much　to　this　end　as　the　great　poem　of　　Dante。　The　Tuscan　dialect　became　the　basis　of　the　new　national　speech。　　If　this　assertion　may　seem　to　some　to　go　too　far；　as　foreigners　we　may　　be　excused；　in　a　matter　on　which　much　difference　of　opinion　prevails；　　for　following　the　general　belief。
  Literature　and　poetry　probably　lost　more　than　they　gained　by　the　　contentious　purism　which　was　long　prevalent　in　Italy；　and　which　marred　　the　freshness　and　vigor　of　many　an　able　writer。　Others；　again；　who　felt　　themselves　masters　of　this　magnificent　language；　were　tempted　to　rely　　upon　its　harmony　and　flow；　apart　from　the　thought　which　it　expressed。　A　　very　insignificant　melody；　played　upon　such　an　instrument；　can　produce　　a　very　great　effect。　But　however　this　may　be；　it　is　certain　that　　socially　the　language　had　great　value。　It　was；　as　it　were；　that　the　；　　of　eager　language　the　crown　of　a　noble　and　dignified　behavior；　and　　compelled　the　gentleman；　both　in　his　ordinary　bearing　and　in　　exceptional　moments　to　observe　external　propriety。　No　doubt　this　　classical　garment；　like　the　language　of　Attic　society；　served　to　drape　　much　that　was　foul　and　malicious；　but　it　was　also　the　adequate　　expression　of　all　that　is　noblest　and　most　refined。　But　politically　and　　nationally　it　was　of　supreme　importance；　serving　as　an　ideal　home　for　　the　educated　classes　in　all　the　States　of　the　divided　peninsula。　Nor　　was　it　the　special　property　of　the　nobles　or　of　any　one　class；　but　the　　poorest　and　humblest　might　learn　it　if　they　would。　Even　now　and　　perhaps　more　than　ever　in　those　parts　of　Italy　where；　as　a　rule；　the　　most　unintelligible　dialect　prevails；　the　stranger　is　often　astonished　　at　hearing　pure　and　well…spoken　Italian　from　the　mouths　of　peasants　or　　artisans；　and　looks　in　vain　for　anything　analogous　in　France　or　in　　Germany；　where　even　the　educated　classes　retain　traces　of　a　provincial　　speech。　There　is　certainly　a　larger　number　of　people　able　to　read　in　　Italy　than　we　should　be　led　to　expect　from　the　condition　of　many　parts　　of　the　countryas　for　in…　stance；　the　States　of　the　Churchin　other　　respects；　but　what　is　more　important　is　the　general　and　undisputed　　respect　for　pure　language　and　pronunciation　as　something　precious　and　　sacred。　One　part　of　the　country　after　another　came　to　adopt　the　　classical　dialect　officially。　Venice；　Milan；　and　Naples　did　so　at　the　　noontime　of　Italian　literature；　and　partly　through　its　influences。　It　　was　not　till　the　present　century　that　Piedmont　became　of　its　own　free　　will　a　genuine　Italian　province　by　sharing　in　this　chief　treasure　of　　the　peoplepure　speech。　The　dialects　were　from　the　beginning　of　the　　sixteenth　century　purposely　left　to　deal　with　a　certain　class　of　　subjects；　serious　as　well　as　comic；　and　the　style　which　was　thus　　developed　proved　the　equal　to　all　its　tasks。　Among　other　nations　a　　conscious　separation　of　this　kind　did　not　occur　till　a　much　later　　period。
  The　opinion　of　educated　people　as　to　the　social　value　of　language　is　　fully　set　forth　in　the　'Cortigiano。'　There　were　then　persons；　at　the　　beginning　of　the　sixteenth　century；　who　purposely　kept　to　the　　antiquated　expressions　of　Dante　and　the　other　Tuscan　writers　of　his　　time；　simply　because　they　were　old。　Our　author　forbids　the　use　of　them　　altogether　in　speech；　and　is　unwilling　to　permit　them　even　in　writing；　　which　he　considers　a　form　of　speech。　Upon　this　follows　the　admission　　that　the　best　style　of　speech　is　that　which　most　resembles　good　　writing。　We　can　clearly　recognize　the　author's　feeling　that　people　who　　have　anything　of　importance　to　say　must　shape　their　own　speech；　and　　that　language　is　something　flexible　and　changing　because　it　is　　something　living。　It　is　allowable　to　make　use　of　any　expression；　　however　ornate；　as　long　as　it　is　used　by　the　people；　nor　are　non…Tuscan　　words；　or　even　French　and　Spanish　words　forbidden；　if　custom　has　once　　applied　them　to　definite　purposes。　Thus