es。　Alexander　spoke　Spanish　　in　public　with　Cesare；　Lucrezia；　at　her　entrance　to　Ferrara；　where　she　　wore　a　Spanish　costume；　was　sung　to　by　Spanish　buffoons；　their　　confidential　servants　consisted　of　Spaniards；　as　did　also　the　most　ill…　famed　company　of　the　troops　of　Cesare　in　the　war　of　1500；　and　even　his　　hangman；　Don　Micheletto；　and　his　poisoner；　Sebastiano　Pinzon　Cremonese；　　seem　to　have　been　of　the　same　nation。　Among　his　other　achievements；　　Cesare；　in　true　Spanish　fashion；　killed；　according　to　the　rules　of　the　　craft；　six　wild　bulls　in　an　enclosed　court。　But　the　Roman　corruption；　　which　seemed　to　culminate　in　this　family；　was　already　far　advanced　when　　they　came　to　the　city。
  What　they　were　and　what　they　did　has　been　often　and　fully　described。　　Their　immediate　purpose；　which；　in　fact；　they　attained；　was　the　　complete　subjugation　of　the　pontifical　State。　All　the　petty　despots；　　who　were　mostly　more　or　less　refractory　vassals　of　the　Church；　were　　expelled　or　destroyed；　and　in　Rome　itself　the　two　great　factions　were　　annihilated；　the　so…called　Guelph　Orsini　as　well　as　the　so…called　　Ghibelline　Colonna。　But　the　means　employed　were　of　so　frightful　a　　character　that　they　must　certainly　have　ended　in　the　ruin　of　the　　Papacy；　had　not　the　contemporaneous　death　of　both　father　and　son　by　　poison　suddenly　intervened　to　alter　the　whole　aspect　of　the　situation。　　The　moral　indignation　of　Christendom　was　certainly　no　great　source　of　　danger　to　Alexander；　at　home　he　was　strong　enough　to　extort　terror　and　　obedience；　foreign　rulers　were　won　over　to　his　side；　and　Louis　XII　even　　aided　him　to　the　utmost　of　his　power。　The　mass　of　the　people　throughout　　Europe　had　hardly　a　conception　of　what　was　passing　in　Central　Italy。　　The　only　moment　which　was　really　fraught　with　dangerwhen　Charles　VIII　　was　in　Italywent　by　with　unexpected　fortune；　and　even　then　it　was　not　　the　Papacy　as　such　that　was　in　peril；　but　Alexander；　who　risked　being　　supplanted　by　a　more　respectable　Pope。　The　great；　permanent；　and　　increasing　danger　for　the　Papacy　lay　in　Alexander　himself；　and；　above　　all；　in　his　son　Cesare　Borgia。
  In　the　nature　of　the　father；　ambition；　avarice；　and　sensuality　were　　combined　with　strong　and　brilliant　qualities。　All　the　pleasures　of　　power　and　luxury　he　granted　himself　from　the　first　day　of　his　　pontificate　in　the　fullest　measure。　In　the　choice　of　means　to　this　end　　he　was　wholly　without　scruple；　it　was　known　at　once　that　he　would　more　　than　compensate　himself　for　the　sacrifices　which　his　election　had　　involved；　and　that　the　seller　would　far　exceed　the　simony　of　the　buyer。　　It　must　be　remembered　that　the　vice…chancellorship　and　other　offices　　which　Alexander　had　formerly　held　had　taught　him　to　know　better　and　　turn　to　more　practical　account　the　various　sources　of　revenue　than　any　　other　member　of　the　Curia。　As　early　as　1494；　a　Carmelite；　Adam　of　　Genoa；　who　had　preached　at　Rome　against　simony；　was　found　murdered　in　　his　bed　with　twenty　wounds。　Hardly　a　single　cardinal　was　appointed　　without　the　payment　of　enormous　sums　of　money。
  But　when　the　Pope　in　course　of　time　fell　under　the　influence　of　his　son　　Cesare　Borgia；　his　violent　measures　assumed　that　character　of　devilish　　wickedness　which　necessarily　reacts　upon　the　ends　pursued。　What　was　　done　in　the　struggle　with　the　Roman　nobles　and　with　the　tyrants　of　　Romagna　exceeded　in　faithlessness　and　barbarity　even　that　measure　to　　which　the　Aragonese　rulers　of　Naples　had　already　accustomed　the　world；　　and　the　genius　for　deception　was　also　greater。　The　manner　in　which　　Cesare　isolated　his　father；　murdering　brother；　brother…in…law；　and　　other　relations　or　courtiers；　whenever　their　favour　with　the　Pope　or　　their　position　in　any　other　respect　became　inconvenient　to　him；　is　　literally　appalling。　Alexander　was　forced　to　acquiesce　in　the　murder　of　　his　best…loved　son；　the　Duke　of　Gandia；　since　he　himself　lived　in　　hourly　dread　of　Cesare。
  What　were　the　final　aims　of　the　latter？　Even　in　the　last　months　of　his　　tyranny；　when　he　had　murdered　the　Condottieri　at　Sinigaglia；　and　was　to　　all　intents　and　purposes　master　of　the　ecclesiastical　State　（1503）；　　those　who　stood　near　him　gave　the　modest　reply　that　the　Duke　merely　　wished　to　put　down　the　factions　and　the　despots；　and　all　for　the　good　　of　the　Church　only；　that　for　himself　he　desired　nothing　more　than　the　　lordship　of　the　Romagna；　and　that　he　had　earned　the　gratitude　of　all　　the　following　Popes　by　ridding　them　of　the　Orsini　and　Colonna。　But　no　　one　will　accept　this　as　his　ultimate　design。　The　Pope　Alexander　　himself；　in　his　discussions　with　the　Venetian　ambassador；　went　further　　than　this；　when　committing　his　son　to　the　protection　of　Venice：　'I　will　　see　to　it；'　he　said；　that　one　day　the　Papacy　shall　belong　either　to　him　　or　to　you。'　Cesare　indeed　added　that　no　one　could　become　Pope　without　　the　consent　of　Venice；　and　for　this　end　the　Venetian　cardinals　had　only　　to　keep　well　together。　Whether　he　referred　to　himself　or　not　we　are　　unable　to　say；　at　all　events；　the　declaration　of　his　father　is　　sufficient　to　prove　his　designs　on　the　pontifical　throne。　We　further　　obtain　from　Lucrezia　Borgia　a　certain　amount　of　indirect　evidence；　in　　so　far　as　certain　passages　in　the　poems　of　Ercole　Strozza　may　be　the　　echo　of　expressions　which　she　as　Duchess　of　Ferrara　may　easily　have　　permitted　herself　to　use。　Here；　too；　Cesare's　hopes　of　the　Papacy　are　　chiefly　spoken　of；　but　now　and　then　a　supremacy　over　all　Italy　is　　hinted　at；　and　finally　we　are　given　to　understand　that　as　temporal　　ruler　Cesare's　projects　were　of　the　greatest；　and　that　for　their　sake　　he　had　formerly　surrendered　his　cardinalate。　In　fact；　there　can　be　no　　doubt　whatever　that　Cesare；　whether　chosen　Pope　or　not　after　the　death　　of　Alexander；　meant　to　keep　possession　of　the　pontifical　State　at　any　　cost；　and　that　this；　after　all　the　enormities　he　had　committed；　he　　could　not　as　Pope　have　succeeded　in　doing　permanently。　He；　if　anybody；　　could　have　secularized　the　States　of　the　Church；　and　he　would　have　been　　forced　to　do　so　in　order　to　keep　them。　Unless　we　are　much　deceived；　　this　is　the　real　reason　of　the　secret　sympathy　with　which　Machiavelli　　treats　the　great　criminal；　from　Cesare；　or　from　nobody；　could　it　be　　hoped　that　he　'would　draw　the　steel　from　the　wound；'　in　other　words；　　annihilate　the　Papacythe　source　of　all　foreign　intervention　and　of　　all　the　divisions　of　Italy。　The　intriguers　who　thought　to　divine　　Cesare's　aims；　when　holding　out　to　him　hopes　of　the　Kingdom　of　Tuscany；　　seem　to　have　been　dismissed　with　contempt。
  But　all　logical　conclusions　from　his　premises　are　idle；　not　because　of　　the　unaccountable　genius；　which　in　fact　characterized　him　as　little　as　　it　did　Wallenstein；　but　because　the　means　which　he　employed　were　not　　compatible　with　any　large　and　consistent　course　of　action。　Perhaps；　　indeed；　in　the　very　excess　of　his　wickedness　some　prospect　of　salvation　　for　the　Papacy　may　have　existed　even　without　the　accident　which　put　an　　end　to　his　rule。
  Even　if　we　assume　that　the　destruction　of　the　petty　despots　in　the　　pontifical　State　had　gained　for　him　nothing　but　sympathy；　even　if　we　　take　as　proof　of　his　great　projects　the　army　composed　of　the　best　　soldiers　and　officers　in　Italy；　with　Leonardo　da　Vinci　as　chief　　engineer；　which　followed　his　fortunes　in　1502；　other　facts　nevertheless　　bear　such　a　character　of　unreason　that　our　judgement；　like　that　of　　contemporary　observers；　is　wholly　at　a　loss　to　explain　them。　One　fact　　of　this　kind　is　the　devastation　and　maltreatment　of　the　newly…won　　State；　which　Cesare　still　intended　to　keep　and　to　rule　over。　Another　is　　the　condition　of　Rome　and　of　the　Curia　in　the　last　decades　of　the　　pontificate。　Whether　it　were　that　father　and　son　had　drawn　up　a　formal　　list　of　proscribed　persons；　or　that　the　murders　were　resolved　upon　one　　by　one；　in　either　case　the　Borgias　were　bent　on　the　secret　destruction　　of　all　who　stood　in　their　way　or　whose　inheritance　they　coveted。　Of　　this；　money　and　movable　goods　formed　the　smallest　part；　it　was　a　much　　greater　source　of　profit　for　the　Pope　that　the　incomes　of　the　clerical　　dignitaries　in　question　were　suspended　by　their　death；　and　that　he　　received　the　revenues　of　their　offices　while　vacant；　and　the　price　of　　these　offices　when　they　were　filled　by　the　successors　of　the　murdered　　men。　The　Venetian　ambassador　Paolo　Capello　reported　in　the　year　1500：　　'Every　night　four　or　five　murdered　men　are　discoveredbishops；　　prelates　and　othersso　that　all　Rome　is　trembling　for　fear　of　being　　destroyed　by　the　Duke　（Cesare）。'　He　himself　used　to　wander　about　Rome　　in　the　night…time　with　his　guards；　and　there　is　every　reason　to　believe　　that　he　did　so　not　only　because；　like　Tiberius；　he　shrank　from　showing　　his　now　repulsive　features　by　daylight；　but　also　to　gratify　his　insane　　thirst　for　blood；　perhaps　even　on　persons　unknown　to　him。
  As　early　as　the　year　1499　the　despair　was　so　great　and　so　general　that　　many　of　the　Papal　guards　were　waylaid　and　put　to　death…　But　those　whom　　the　Borgias　could　not　assail　with　open　violence　fell　victims　to　their　　poison。　For　the　cases　in　which　a　certain　amount　of　discretion　seemed　　requisite；　a　white　powder　of　an　agreeable　taste　was　made　use　of；　which　　did　not　work　on　the　spot；　but　slowly　and　gradually；　a