on　which　we　live。　　Ignorance　of　this　cause　was　the　sole　obstacle　which　prevented　the　ancients　from　believing　in　the　antipodes。　　〃Can　you　not　see；〃　said　St。　Augustine　after　Lactantius；　〃that；　if　there　were　men　under　our　feet；　their　heads　would　point　downward；　and　that　they　would　fall　into　the　sky？〃　　The　bishop　of　Hippo；　who　thought　the　earth　flat　because　it　appeared　so　to　the　eye；　supposed　in　consequence　that；　if　we　should　connect　by　straight　lines　the　zenith　with　the　nadir　in　different　places；　these　lines　would　be　parallel　with　each　other；　and　in　the　direction　of　these　lines　he　traced　every　movement　from　above　to　below。　　Thence　he　naturally　concluded　that　the　stars　were　rolling　torches　set　in　the　vault　of　the　sky；　that；　if　left　to　themselves；　they　would　fall　to　the　earth　in　a　shower　of　fire；　that　the　earth　was　one　vast　plain；　forming　the　lower　portion　of　the　world；　&c。　　If　he　had　been　asked　by　what　the　world　itself　was　sustained；　he　would　have　answered　that　he　did　not　know；　but　that　to　God　nothing　is　impossible。　　Such　were　the　ideas　of　St。　Augustine　in　regard　to　space　and　movement；　ideas　fixed　within　him　by　a　prejudice　derived　from　an　appearance；　and　which　had　become　with　him　a　general　and　categorical　rule　of　judgment。　　Of　the　reason　why　bodies　fall　his　mind　knew　nothing；　he　could　only　say　that　a　body　falls　because　it　falls。
  With　us　the　idea　of　a　fall　is　more　complex：　to　the　general　ideas　of　space　and　movement　which　it　implies；　we　add　that　of　attraction　or　direction　towards　a　centre；　which　gives　us　the　higher　idea　of　cause。　　But　if　physics　has　fully　corrected　our　judgment　in　this　respect；　we　still　make　use　of　the　prejudice　of　St。　Augustine；　and　when　we　say　that　a　thing　has　FALLEN；　we　do　not　mean　simply　and　in　general　that　there　has　been　an　effect　of　gravitation；　but　specially　and　in　particular　that　it　is　towards　the　earth；　and　FROM　ABOVE　TO　BELOW；　that　this　movement　has　taken　place。　　Our　mind　is　enlightened　in　vain；　the　imagination　prevails；　and　our　language　remains　forever　incorrigible。　　To　DESCEND　FROM　HEAVEN　is　as　incorrect　an　expression　as　to　MOUNT　TO　HEAVEN；　and　yet　this　expression　will　live　as　long　as　men　use　language。
  All　these　phrasesFROM　ABOVE　TO　BELOW；　TO　DESCEND　FROM　HEAVEN；　TO　FALL　FROM　THE　CLOUDS；　&C。are　henceforth　harmless；　because　we　know　how　to　rectify　them　in　practice；　but　let　us　deign　to　consider　for　a　moment　how　much　they　have　retarded　the　progress　of　science。　　If；　indeed；　it　be　a　matter　of　little　importance　to　statistics；　mechanics；　hydrodynamics；　and　ballistics；　that　the　true　cause　of　the　fall　of　bodies　should　be　known；　and　that　our　ideas　of　the　general　movements　in　space　should　be　exact；　it　is　quite　otherwise　when　we　undertake　to　explain　the　system　of　the　universe；　the　cause　of　tides；　the　shape　of　the　earth；　and　its　position　in　the　heavens：　to　understand　these　things　we　must　leave　the　circle　of　appearances。　　In　all　ages　there　have　been　ingenious　mechanicians；　excellent　architects；　skilful　artillerymen：　any　error；　into　which　it　was　possible　for　them　to　fall　in　regard　to　the　rotundity　of　the　earth　and　gravitation；　in　no　wise　retarded　the　development　of　their　art；　the　solidity　of　their　buildings　and　accuracy　of　their　aim　was　not　affected　by　it。　　But　sooner　or　later　they　were　forced　to　grapple　with　phenomena；　which　the　supposed　parallelism　of　all　perpendiculars　erected　from　the　earth's　surface　rendered　inexplicable：　then　also　commenced　a　struggle　between　the　prejudices；　which　for　centuries　had　sufficed　in　daily　practice；　and　the　unprecedented　opinions　which　the　testimony　of　the　eyes　seemed　to　contradict。
  Thus；　on　the　one　hand；　the　falsest　judgments；　whether　based　on　isolated　facts　or　only　on　appearances；　always　embrace　some　truths　whose　sphere；　whether　large　or　small；　affords　room　for　a　certain　number　of　inferences；　beyond　which　we　fall　into　absurdity。　　The　ideas　of　St。　Augustine；　for　example；　contained　the　following　truths：　that　bodies　fall　towards　the　earth；　that　they　fall　in　a　straight　line；　that　either　the　sun　or　the　earth　moves；　that　either　the　sky　or　the　earth　turns；　&c。　　These　general　facts　always　have　been　true；　our　science　has　added　nothing　to　them。　　But；　on　the　other　hand；　it　being　necessary　to　account　for　every　thing；　we　are　obliged　to　seek　for　principles　more　and　more　comprehensive：　that　is　why　we　have　had　to　abandon　successively；　first　the　opinion　that　the　world　was　flat；　then　the　theory　which　regards　it　as　the　stationary　centre　of　the　universe；　&c。
  If　we　pass　now　from　physical　nature　to　the　moral　world；　we　still　find　ourselves　subject　to　the　same　deceptions　of　appearance；　to　the　same　influences　of　spontaneity　and　habit。　　But　the　distinguishing　feature　of　this　second　division　of　our　knowledge　is；　on　the　one　hand；　the　good　or　the　evil　which　we　derive　from　our　opinions；　and；　on　the　other；　the　obstinacy　with　which　we　defend　the　prejudice　which　is　tormenting　and　killing　us。
  Whatever　theory　we　embrace　in　regard　to　the　shape　of　the　earth　and　the　cause　of　its　weight；　the　physics　of　the　globe　does　not　suffer；　and；　as　for　us；　our　social　economy　can　derive　therefrom　neither　profit　nor　damage。　　But　it　is　in　us　and　through　us　that　the　laws　of　our　moral　nature　work；　now；　these　laws　cannot　be　executed　without　our　deliberate　aid；　and；　consequently；　unless　we　know　them。　　If；　then；　our　science　of　moral　laws　is　false；　it　is　evident　that；　while　desiring　our　own　good；　we　are　accomplishing　our　own　evil；　if　it　is　only　incomplete；　it　may　suffice　for　a　time　for　our　social　progress；　but　in　the　long　run　it　will　lead　us　into　a　wrong　road；　and　will　finally　precipitate　us　into　an　abyss　of　calamities。
  Then　it　is　that　we　need　to　exercise　our　highest　judgments；　and；　be　it　said　to　our　glory；　they　are　never　found　wanting：　but　then　also　commences　a　furious　struggle　between　old　prejudices　and　new　ideas。　　Days　of　conflagration　and　anguish！　　We　are　told　of　the　time　when；　with　the　same　beliefs；　with　the　same　institutions；　all　the　world　seemed　happy：　why　complain　of　these　beliefs；　why　banish　these　institutions？　　We　are　slow　to　admit　that　that　happy　age　served　the　precise　purpose　of　developing　the　principle　of　evil　which　lay　dormant　in　society；　we　accuse　men　and　gods；　the　powers　of　earth　and　the　forces　of　Nature。　　Instead　of　seeking　the　cause　of　the　evil　in　his　mind　and　heart；　man　blames　his　masters；　his　rivals；　his　neighbors；　and　himself；　nations　arm　themselves；　and　slay　and　exterminate　each　other；　until　equilibrium　is　restored　by　the　vast　depopulation；　and　peace　again　arises　from　the　ashes　of　the　combatants。　　So　loath　is　humanity　to　touch　the　customs　of　its　ancestors；　and　to　change　the　laws　framed　by　the　founders　of　communities；　and　confirmed　by　the　faithful　observance　of　the　ages。
  _Nihil　motum　ex　antiquo　probabile　est_：　　Distrust　all　innovations；　wrote　Titus　Livius。　　Undoubtedly　it　would　be　better　were　man　not　compelled　to　change：　but　what！　because　he　is　born　ignorant；　because　he　exists　only　on　condition　of　gradual　self…　instruction；　must　he　abjure　the　light；　abdicate　his　reason；　and　abandon　himself　to　fortune？　　Perfect　health　is　better　than　convalescence：　should　the　sick　man；　therefore；　refuse　to　be　cured？　　Reform；　reform！　cried；　ages　since；　John　the　Baptist　and　Jesus　Christ。　　Reform；　reform！　cried　our　fathers；　fifty　years　ago；　and　for　a　long　time　to　come　we　shall　shout；　Reform；　reform！
  Seeing　the　misery　of　my　age；　I　said　to　myself：　　Among　the　principles　that　support　society；　there　is　one　which　it　does　not　understand；　which　its　ignorance　has　vitiated；　and　which　causes　all　the　evil　that　exists。　　This　principle　is　the　most　ancient　of　all；　for　it　is　a　characteristic　of　revolutions　to　tear　down　the　most　modern　principles；　and　to　respect　those　of　long…standing。　　Now　the　evil　by　which　we　suffer　is　anterior　to　all　revolutions。　　This　principle；　impaired　by　our　ignorance；　is　honored　and　cherished；　for　if　it　were　not　cherished　it　would　harm　nobody；　it　would　be　without　influence。
  But　this　principle；　right　in　its　purpose；　but　misunderstood：　this　principle；　as　old　as　humanity；　what　is　it？　　Can　it　be　religion？
  All　men　believe　in　God：　this　dogma　belongs　at　once　to　their　conscience　and　their　mind。　　To　humanity　God　is　a　fact　as　primitive；　an　idea　as　inevitable；　a　principle　as　necessary　as　are　the　categorical　ideas　of　cause；　substance；　time；　and　space　to　our　understanding。　　God　is　proven　to　us　by　the　conscience　prior　to　any　inference　of　the　mind；　just　as　the　sun　is　proven　to　us　by　the　testimony　of　the　senses　prior　to　all　the　arguments　of　physics。　　We　discover　phenomena　and　laws　by　observation　and　experience；　only　this　deeper　sense　reveals　to　us　existence。　　Humanity　believes　that　God　is；　but；　in　believing　in　God；　what　does　it　believe？　　In　a　word；　what　is　God？
  The　nature　of　this　notion　of　Divinity；this　primitive；　universal　notion；　born　in　the　race；the　human　mind　has　not　yet　fathomed。　　At　each　step　that　we　take　in　our　investigation　of　Nature　and　of　causes；　the　idea　of　God　is　extended　and　exalted；　the　farther　science　advances；　the　more　God　seems　to　grow　and　broaden。　　Anthropomorphism　and　idolatry　constituted　of　necessity　the　faith　of　the　mind　in　its　youth；　the　theology　of　infancy　and　poesy。　　A　harmless　error；　if　they　had　not　endeavored　to　make　it　a　rule　of　conduct；　and　if　they　had　been　wise　enough　to　respect　the　liberty　of　thought。