pain　to　any　one。
  I　have　reserved　for　the　last　place　a　large　class　of　questions
  respecting　the　limits　of　government　interference；　which；　though
  closely　connected　with　the　subject　of　this　Essay；　do　not；　in
  strictness；　belong　to　it。　These　are　cases　in　which　the　reasons　against
  interference　do　not　turn　upon　the　principle　of　liberty：　the　question
  is　not　about　restraining　the　actions　of　individuals；　but　about　helping
  them；　it　is　asked　whether　the　government　should　do；　or　cause　to　be
  done；　something　for　their　benefit；　instead　of　leaving　it　to　be　done　by
  themselves；　individually　or　in　voluntary　combination。
  The　objections　to　government　interference；　when　it　is　not　such　as　to
  involve　infringement　of　liberty；　may　be　of　three　kinds。
  The　first　is；　when　the　thing　to　be　done　is　likely　to　be　better
  done　by　individuals　than　by　the　government。　Speaking　generally；
  there　is　no　one　so　fit　to　conduct　any　business；　or　to　determine　how　or
  by　whom　it　shall　be　conducted；　as　those　who　are　personally
  interested　in　it。　This　principle　condemns　the　interferences；　once　so
  common；　of　the　legislature；　or　the　officers　of　government；　with　the
  ordinary　processes　of　industry。　But　this　part　of　the　subject　has
  been　sufficiently　enlarged　upon　by　political　economists；　and　is　not
  particularly　related　to　the　principles　of　this　Essay。
  The　second　objection　is　more　nearly　allied　to　our　subject。　In　many
  cases；　though　individuals　may　not　do　the　particular　thing　so　well；
  on　the　average；　as　the　officers　of　government；　it　is　nevertheless
  desirable　that　it　should　be　done　by　them；　rather　than　by　the
  government；　as　a　means　to　their　own　mental　education…　a　mode　of
  strengthening　their　active　faculties；　exercising　their　judgment；　and
  giving　them　a　familiar　knowledge　of　the　subjects　with　which　they　are
  thus　left　to　deal。　This　is　a　principal；　though　not　the　sole；
  recommendation　of　jury　trial　（in　cases　not　political）；　of　free　and
  popular　local　and　municipal　institutions；　of　the　conduct　of　industrial
  and　philanthropic　enterprises　by　voluntary　associations。　These　are　not
  questions　of　liberty；　and　are　connected　with　that　subject　only　by
  remote　tendencies；　but　they　are　questions　of　development。　It　belongs
  to　a　different　occasion　from　the　present　to　dwell　on　these　things　as
  parts　of　national　education；　as　being；　in　truth；　the　peculiar　training
  of　a　citizen；　the　practical　part　of　the　political　education　of　a
  free　people；　taking　them　out　of　the　narrow　circle　of　personal　and
  family　selfishness；　and　accustoming　them　to　the　comprehension　of　joint
  interests；　the　management　of　joint　concerns…　habituating　them　to　act
  from　public　or　semi…public　motives；　and　guide　their　conduct　by　aims
  which　unite　instead　of　isolating　them　from　one　another。　Without
  these　habits　and　powers；　a　free　constitution　can　neither　be　worked　nor
  preserved；　as　is　exemplified　by　the　too…often　transitory　nature　of
  political　freedom　in　countries　where　it　does　not　rest　upon　a
  sufficient　basis　of　local　liberties。　The　management　of　purely　local
  business　by　the　localities；　and　of　the　great　enterprises　of　industry
  by　the　union　of　those　who　voluntarily　supply　the　pecuniary　means；　is
  further　recommended　by　all　the　advantages　which　have　been　set　forth　in
  this　Essay　as　belonging　to　individuality　of　development；　and　diversity
  of　modes　of　action。　Government　operations　tend　to　be　everywhere　alike。
  With　individuals　and　voluntary　associations；　on　the　contrary；　there
  are　varied　experiments；　and　endless　diversity　of　experience。　What
  the　State　can　usefully　do　is　to　make　itself　a　central　depository；
  and　active　circulator　and　diffuser；　of　the　experience　resulting　from
  many　trials。　Its　business　is　to　enable　each　experimentalist　to　benefit
  by　the　experiments　of　others；　instead　of　tolerating　no　experiments　but
  its　own。
  The　third　and　most　cogent　reason　for　restricting　the　interference　of
  government　is　the　great　evil　of　adding　unnecessarily　to　its　power。
  Every　function　superadded　to　those　already　exercised　by　the　government
  causes　its　influence　over　hopes　and　fears　to　be　more　widely
  diffused；　and　converts；　more　and　more；　the　active　and　ambitious　part
  of　the　public　into　hangers…on　of　the　government；　or　of　some　party
  which　aims　at　becoming　the　government。　If　the　roads；　the　railways；　the
  banks；　the　insurance　offices；　the　great　joint…stock　companies；　the
  universities；　and　the　public　charities；　were　all　of　them　branches　of
  the　government；　if；　in　addition；　the　municipal　corporations　and
  local　boards；　with　all　that　now　devolves　on　them；　became　departments
  of　the　central　administration；　if　the　employes　of　all　these
  different　enterprises　were　appointed　and　paid　by　the　government；　and
  looked　to　the　government　for　every　rise　in　life；　not　all　the　freedom
  of　the　press　and　popular　constitution　of　the　legislature　would　make
  this　or　any　other　country　free　otherwise　than　in　name。　And　the　evil
  would　be　greater；　the　more　efficiently　and　scientifically　the
  administrative　machinery　was　constructed…　the　more　skilful　the
  arrangements　for　obtaining　the　best　qualified　hands　and　heads　with
  which　to　work　it。　In　England　it　has　of　late　been　proposed　that　all　the
  members　of　the　civil　service　of　government　should　be　selected　by
  competitive　examination；　to　obtain　for　these　employments　the　most
  intelligent　and　instructed　persons　procurable；　and　much　has　been
  said　and　written　for　and　against　this　proposal。　One　of　the　arguments
  most　insisted　on　by　its　opponents　is　that　the　occupation　of　a
  permanent　official　servant　of　the　State　does　not　hold　out　sufficient
  prospects　of　emolument　and　importance　to　attract　the　highest
  talents；　which　will　always　be　able　to　find　a　more　inviting　career　in
  the　professions；　or　in　the　service　of　companies　and　other　public
  bodies。　One　would　not　have　been　surprised　if　this　argument　had　been
  used　by　the　friends　of　the　proposition；　as　an　answer　to　its
  principal　difficulty。　Coming　from　the　opponents　it　is　strange
  enough。　What　is　urged　as　an　objection　is　the　safety…valve　of　the
  proposed　system。　If　indeed　all　the　high　talent　of　the　country　could　be
  drawn　into　the　service　of　the　government；　a　proposal　tending　to
  bring　about　that　result　might　well　inspire　uneasiness。　If　every　part
  of　the　business　of　society　which　required　organised　concert；　or
  large　and　comprehensive　views；　were　in　the　hands　of　the　government；
  and　if　government　offices　were　universally　filled　by　the　ablest　men；
  all　the　enlarged　culture　and　practised　intelligence　in　the　country；
  except　the　purely　speculative；　would　be　concentrated　in　a　numerous
  bureaucracy；　to　whom　alone　the　rest　of　the　community　would　look　for
  all　things：　the　multitude　for　direction　and　dictation　in　all　they
  had　to　do；　the　able　and　aspiring　for　personal　advancement。　To　be
  admitted　into　the　ranks　of　this　bureaucracy；　and　when　admitted；　to
  rise　therein；　would　be　the　sole　objects　of　ambition。　Under　this
  regime；　not　only　is　the　outside　public　ill…qualified；　for　want　of
  practical　experience；　to　criticise　or　check　the　mode　of　operation　of
  the　bureaucracy；　but　even　if　the　accidents　of　despotic　or　the
  natural　working　of　popular　institutions　occasionally　raise　to　the
  summit　a　ruler　or　rulers　of　reforming　inclinations；　no　reform　can　be
  effected　which　is　contrary　to　the　interest　of　the　bureaucracy。
  Such　is　the　melancholy　condition　of　the　Russian　empire；　as　shown
  in　the　accounts　of　those　who　have　had　sufficient　opportunity　of
  observation。　The　Czar　himself　is　powerless　against　the　bureaucratic
  body；　he　can　send　any　one　of　them　to　Siberia；　but　he　cannot　govern
  without　them；　or　against　their　will。　On　every　decree　of　his　they
  have　a　tacit　veto；　by　merely　refraining　from　carrying　it　into
  effect。　In　countries　of　more　advanced　civilisation　and　of　a　more
  insurrectionary　spirit；　the　public；　accustomed　to　expect　everything　to
  be　done　for　them　by　the　State；　or　at　least　to　do　nothing　for
  themselves　without　asking　from　the　State　not　only　leave　to　do　it；
  but　even　how　it　is　to　be　done；　naturally　hold　the　State　responsible
  for　all　evil　which　befalls　them；　and　when　the　evil　exceeds　their
  amount　of　patience；　they　rise　against　the　government；　and　make　what　is
  called　a　revolution；　whereupon　somebody　else；　with　or　without
  legitimate　authority　from　the　nation；　vaults　into　the　seat；　issues　his
  orders　to　the　bureaucracy；　and　everything　goes　on　much　as　it　did
  before；　the　bureaucracy　being　unchanged；　and　nobody　else　being　capable
  of　taking　their　place。
  A　very　different　spectacle　is　exhibited　among　a　people　accustomed　to
  transact　their　own　business。　In　France；　a　large　part　of　the　people；
  having　been　engaged　in　military　service；　many　of　whom　have　held　at
  least　the　rank　of　non　commissioned　officers；　there　are　in　every
  popular　i