linical　teaching　whose　method　remains　in　vogue　today　in　Francethe　ward　visit；　followed　by　a　systematic　lecture　in　the　amphitheatre。　　There　were　still　lectures　on　Hippocrates　three　times　a　week；　and　bleeding　was　the　principal　plan　of　treatment：　one　morning　Frank　saw　thirty　patients；　out　of　one　hundred　and　twelve；　bled！　Corvisart　was　the　strong　clinician　of　his　generation；　and　his　accurate　studies　on　the　heart　were　among　the　first　that　had　concentrated　attention　upon　a　special　organ。　　To　him；　too；　is　due　the　reintroduction　of　the　art　of　percussion　in　internal　disease　discovered　by　Auenbrugger　in　1761。
  ＇10＇　Joseph　Frank：　　Reise　nach　Paris　＇etc。＇；　Wien；　1804…05。
  The　man　who　gave　the　greatest　impetus　to　the　study　of　scientific　medicine　at　this　time　was　Bichat；　who　pointed　out　that　the　pathological　changes　in　disease　were　not　so　much　in　organs　as　in　tissues。　His　studies　laid　the　foundation　of　modern　histology。　He　separated　the　chief　constituent　elements　of　the　body　into　various　tissues　possessing　definite　physical　and　vital　qualities。　〃Sensibility　and　contractability　are　the　fundamental　qualities　of　living　matter　and　of　the　life　of　our　tissues。　Thus　Bichat　substituted　for　vital　forces　'vital　properties；'　that　is　to　say；　a　series　of　vital　forces　inherent　in　the　different　tissues。〃＇11＇　His　〃Anatomic　Generale；〃　published　in　1802；　gave　an　extraordinary　stimulus　to　the　study　of　the　finer　processes　of　disease；　and　his　famous　〃Recherches　sur　la　Vie　et　sur　la　Mort〃　（1800）　dealt　a　death…blow　to　old　iatromechanical　and　iatrochemical　views。　His　celebrated　definition　may　be　quoted：　　〃La　vie　est　l'ensemble　des　proprietes　vitales　qui　resistent　aux　proprietes　physiques；　ou　bien　la　vie　est　l'ensemble　des　fonctions　qui　resistent　a　la　mort。〃　（Life　is　the　sum　of　the　vital　properties　that　withstand　the　physical　properties；　or；　life　is　the　sum　of　the　functions　that　withstand　death。）　Bichat　is　another　pathetic　figure　in　medical　history。　His　meteoric　career　ended　in　his　thirty…first　year：　he　died　a　victim　of　a　post…mortem　wound　infection。　　At　his　death；　Corvisart　wrote　Napoleon：　　〃Bichat　has　just　died　at　the　age　of　thirty。　That　battlefield　on　which　he　fell　is　one　which　demands　courage　and　claims　many　victims。　　He　has　advanced　the　science　of　medicine。　No　one　at　his　age　has　done　so　much　so　well。〃
  ＇11＇　E。　Boinet：　　Les　doctrines　medicules；　leur　evolution；　Paris；　1907；　pp。　85…86。
  It　was　a　pupil　of　Corvisart；　Rene　Theophile　Laennec；　who　laid　the　foundation　of　modern　clinical　medicine。　The　story　of　his　life　is　well　known。　　A　Breton　by　birth；　he　had　a　hard；　up…hill　struggle　as　a　young　mana　struggle　of　which　we　have　only　recently　been　made　aware　by　the　publication　of　a　charming　book　by　Professor　Rouxeau　of　Nantes〃Laennec　avant　1806。〃　　Influenced　by　Corvisart；　he　began　to　combine　the　accurate　study　of　cases　in　the　wards　with　anatomical　investigations　in　the　dead…house。　Before　Laennec；　the　examination　of　a　patient　had　been　largely　by　sense　of　sight；　supplemented　by　that　of　touch；　as　in　estimating　the　degree　of　fever；　or　the　character　of　the　pulse。　　Auenbrugger's　〃Inventum　novum〃　of　percussion；　recognized　by　Corvisart；　extended　the　field；　but　the　discovery　of　auscultation　by　Laennec；　and　the　publication　of　his　work〃De　l'Auscultation　Mediate；〃　1819；marked　an　era　in　the　study　of　medicine。　　The　clinical　recognition　of　individual　diseases　had　made　really　very　little　progress；　with　the　stethoscope　begins　the　day　of　physical　diagnosis。　The　clinical　pathology　of　the　heart；　lungs　and　abdomen　was　revolutionized。　　Laennec's　book　is　in　the　category　of　the　eight　or　ten　greatest　contributions　to　the　science　of　medicine。＇*＇　His　description　of　tuberculosis　is　perhaps　the　most　masterly　chapter　in　clinical　medicine。　　This　revolution　was　effected　by　a　simple　extension　of　the　Hippocratic　method　from　the　bed　to　the　dead…house；　and　by　correlating　the　signs　and　symptoms　of　a　disease　with　its　anatomical　appearances。
  ＇*＇　John　Forbes's　translation　of　Auenbrugger　and　part　of　his　translation　of　Lacnnec　are　reprinted　in　Camac's　Epoch…making　Contributions；　etc。；　1909。Ed。
  The　pupils　and　successors　of　CorvisartBayle；　Andral；　Bouillaud；　Chomel；　Piorry；　Bretonneau；　Rayer；　Cruveilhier　and　Trousseau　brought　a　new　spirit　into　the　profession。　　Everywhere　the　investigation　of　disease　by　clinical…pathological　methods　widened　enormously　the　diagnostic　powers　of　the　physician。　By　this　method　Richard　Bright；　in　1836；　opened　a　new　chapter　on　the　relation　of　disease　of　the　kidney　to　dropsy；　and　to　albuminous　urine。　　It　had　already　been　shown　by　Blackwell　and　by　Wells；　the　celebrated　Charleston　（S。C。）　physician；　in　1811；　that　the　urine　contained　albumin　in　many　cases　of　dropsy；　but　it　was　not　until　Bright　began　a　careful　investigation　of　the　bodies　of　patients　who　had　presented　these　symptoms；　that　he　discovered　the　association　of　various　forms　of　disease　of　the　kidney　with　anasarca　and　albuminous　urine。　In　no　direction　was　the　harvest　of　this　combined　study　more　abundant　than　in　the　complicated　and　confused　subject　of　fever。　The　work　of　Louis　and　of　his　pupils；　W。W。　Gerhard　and　others；　revealed　the　distinction　between　typhus　and　typhoid　fever；　and　so　cleared　up　one　of　the　most　obscure　problems　in　pathology。　By　Morgagni's　method　of　〃anatomical　thinking；〃　Skoda　in　Vienna；　Schonlein　in　Berlin；　Graves　and　Stokes　in　Dublin；　Marshall　Hall；　C。　J。　B。　Williams　and　many　others　introduced　the　new　and　exact　methods　of　the　French　and　created　a　new　clinical　medicine。　　A　very　strong　impetus　was　given　by　the　researches　of　Virchow　on　cellular　pathology；　which　removed　the　seats　of　disease　from　the　tissues；　as　taught　by　Bichat；　to　the　individual　elements；　the　cells。　The　introduction　of　the　use　of　the　microscope　in　clinical　work　widened　greatly　our　powers　of　diagnosis；　and　we　obtained　thereby　a　very　much　clearer　conception　of　the　actual　processes　of　disease。　In　another　way；　too；　medicine　was　greatly　helped　by　the　rise　of　experimental　pathology；　which　had　been　introduced　by　John　Hunter；　was　carried　along　by　Magendie　and　others；　and　reached　its　culmination　in　the　epoch…making　researches　of　Claude　Bernard。　　Not　only　were　valuable　studies　made　on　the　action　of　drugs；　but　also　our　knowledge　of　cardiac　pathology　was　revolutionized　by　the　work　of　Traube；　Cohnheim　and　others。　In　no　direction　did　the　experimental　method　effect　such　a　revolution　as　in　our　knowledge　of　the　functions　of　the　brain。　Clinical　neurology；　which　had　received　a　great　impetus　by　the　studies　of　Todd；　Romberg；　Lockhart　Clarke；　Duchenne　and　Weir　Mitchell；　was　completely　revolutionized　by　the　experimental　work　of　Hitzig；　Fritsch　and　Ferrier　on　the　localization　of　functions　in　the　brain。　　Under　Charcot；　the　school　of　French　neurologists　gave　great　accuracy　to　the　diagnosis　of　obscure　affections　of　the　brain　and　spinal　cord；　and　the　combined　results　of　the　new　anatomical；　physiological　and　experimental　work　have　rendered　clear　and　definite　what　was　formerly　the　most　obscure　and　complicated　section　of　internal　medicine。　　The　end　of　the　fifth　decade　of　the　century　is　marked　by　a　discovery　of　supreme　importance。　Humphry　Davy　had　noted　the　effects　of　nitrous　oxide。　The　exhilarating　influence　of　sulphuric　ether　had　been　casually　studied；　and　Long　of　Georgia　had　made　patients　inhale　the　vapor　until　anaesthetic　and　had　performed　operations　upon　them　when　in　this　state；　but　it　was　not　until　October　16；　1846；　in　the　Massachusetts　General　Hospital；　that　Morton；　in　a　public　operating　room；　rendered　a　patient　insensible　with　ether　and　demonstrated　the　utility　of　surgical　anaesthesia。　The　rival　claims　of　priority　no　longer　interest　us；　but　the　occasion　is　one　of　the　most　memorable　in　the　history　of　the　race。　It　is　well　that　our　colleagues　celebrate　Ether　Day　in　Boston　no　more　precious　boon　has　ever　been　granted　to　suffering　humanity。＇*＇
  ＇*＇　Cf。　Osler：　　Proc。　Roy。　Soc。　Med。；　XI；　Sect。　Hist。　　Med。；　pp。　65…69；　1918；　or；　Annals　Med。　Hist。；　N。Y。；　I；　329…332。　Cf。　also　Morton's　publications　reprinted　in　Camac's　book　cited　above。Ed。
  In　1857；　a　young　man；　Louis　Pasteur；　sent　to　the　Lille　Scientific　Society　a　paper　on　〃Lactic　Acid　Fermentation〃　and　in　December　of　the　same　year　presented　to　the　Academy　of　Sciences　in　Paris　a　paper　on　〃Alcoholic　Fermentation〃　in　which　he　concluded　that　〃the　deduplication　of　sugar　into　alcohol　and　carbonic　acid　is　correlative　to　a　phenomenon　of　life。〃　A　new　era　in　medicine　dates　from　those　two　publications。　The　story　of　Pasteur's　life　should　be　read　by　every　student。＇*＇　It　is　one　of　the　glories　of　human　literature；　and；　as　a　record　of　achievement　and　of　nobility　of　character；　is　almost　without　an　equal。
  ＇*＇　Osler　wrote　a　preface　for　the　1911　English　edition　of　the　Life　by　Vallery…Radot。Ed。
  At　the　middle　of　the　last　century　we　did　not　know　much　more　of　the　actual　causes　of　the　great　scourges　of　the　race；　the　plagues；　the　fevers　and　the　pestilences；　than　did　the　Greeks。　　Here　comes　Pasteur's　great　work。　Before　him　Egyptian　darkness；　with　his　advent　a　light　that　brightens　more　and　more　as　the　years　give　us　ever　fuller　knowledge。　The　facts　that　fevers　were　catching；　that　epidemics　spread；　that　infection　could　remain　attached　to　articles　of　clothing；　etc。；　all　gave　support　to　the　view　that　the　actual　cause　was　something　alive；　a　contagium　vi