writer　will；　I　fear；　be　disagreeably　surprised　to　hear；　that　I
  am；　and　always　have　been；　an　utterly　fearless　and　unscrupulous
  free…trader。　Seven　years　ago；　speaking　of　the　various　signs　of
  infancy　in　the　European　mind　（Stones　of　Venice；　vol。　iii。　p。
  168）；　I　wrote：　〃The　first　principles　of　commerce　were
  acknowledged　by　the　English　parliament　only　a　few　months　ago；　in
  its　free…trade　measures；　and　are　still　so　little　understood　by
  the　million；　that　no　nation　dares　to　abolish　its　custom…houses。〃
  It　will　be　observed　that　I　do　not　admit　even　the　idea　of
  reciprocity。　Let　other　nations；　if　they　like；　keep　their　ports
  shut；　every　wise　nation　will　throw　its　own　open。　It　is　not　the
  opening　them；　but　a　sudden；　inconsiderate；　and　blunderingly
  experimental　manner　of　opening　them；　which　does　the　harm。　If　you
  have　been　protecting　a　manufacture　for　a　long　series　of　years；
  you　must　not　take　the　protection　off　in　a　moment；　so　as　to　throw
  every　one　of　its　operatives　at　once　out　of　employ；　any　more　than
  you　must　take　all　its　wrappings　off　a　feeble　child　at　once　in
  cold　weather；　though　the　cumber　of　them　may　have　been　radically
  injuring　its　health。　Little　by　little；　you　must　restore　it　to
  freedom　and　to　air。
  Most　people's　minds　are　in　curious　confusion　on　the　subject
  of　free　trade；　because　they　suppose　it　to　imply　enlarged
  competition。　On　the　contrary；　free　trade　puts　an　end　to　all
  competition。　〃Protection〃　（among　various　other　mischievous
  functions；）　endeavours　to　enable　one　country　to　compete　with
  another　in　the　production　of　an　article　at　a　disadvantage。　When
  trade　is　entirely　free；　no　country　can　be　competed　with　in　the
  articles　for　the　production　of　which　it　is　naturally　calculated；
  nor　can　it　compete　with　any　other；　in　the　production　of　articles
  for　which　it　is　not　naturally　calculated。　Tuscany；　for　instance；
  cannot　compete　with　England　in　steel；　nor　England　with　Tuscany　in
  oil。　They　must　exchange　their　steel　and　oil。　Which　exchange
  should　be　as　frank　and　free　as　honesty　and　the　sea…winds　can　make
  it。　Competition；　indeed；　arises　at　first；　and　sharply；　in　order
  to　prove　which　is　strongest　in　any　given　manufacture　possible　to
  both；　this　point　once　ascertained；　competition　is　at　an　end。
  13。　I　should　be　glad　if　the　reader　would　first　clear　the　ground
  for　himself　so　far　as　to　determine　whether　the　difficulty　lies　in
  getting　the　work　or　getting　the　pay　for　it。　Does　he　consider
  occupation　itself　to　be　an　expensive　luxury；　difficult　of
  attainment；　of　which　too　little　is　to　be　found　in　the　world？　or
  is　it　rather　that；　while　in　the　enjoyment　even　of　the　most
  athletic　delight；　men　must　nevertheless　be　maintained；　and　this
  maintenance　is　not　always　forthcoming？　We　must　be　clear　on　this
  head　before　going　farther；　as　most　people　are　loosely　in　the
  habit　of　talking　of　the　difficulty　of　〃finding　employment。〃　Is　it
  employment　that　we　want　to　find；　or　support　during　employment？　Is
  it　idleness　we　wish　to　put　an　end　to；　or　hunger？　We　have　to　take
  up　both　questions　in　succession；　only　not　both　at　the　same　time。
  No　doubt　that　work　is　a　luxury；　and　a　very　great　one。　It　is；
  indeed；　at　once　a　luxury　and　a　necessity；　no　man　can　retain
  either　health　of　mind　or　body　without　it。　So　profoundly　do　I　feel
  this；　that；　as　will　be　seen　in　the　sequel；　one　of　the　principal
  objects　I　would　recommend　to　benevolent　and　practical　persons；　is
  to　induce　rich　people　to　seek　for　a　larger　quantity　of　this
  luxury　than　they　at　present　possess。　Nevertheless；　it　appears　by
  experience　that　even　this　healthiest　of　pleasures　may　be　indulged
  in　to　excess；　and　that　human　beings　are　just　as　liable　to　surfeit
  of　labour　as　to　surfeit　of　meat；　so　that；　as　on　the　one　hand；　it
  may　be　charitable　to　provide；　for　some　people；　lighter　dinner；
  and　more　work；　for　others；　it　may　be　equally　expedient　to　provide
  lighter　work；　and　more　dinner。
  14。　Book　I。　chap。　iv。　s。　1。　To　save　space；　my　future　references
  to　Mr　Mill's　work　will　be　by　numerals　only；　as　in　this　instance；
  I。　iv。　I。　Ed。　in　2　vols。　8vo。　Parker；　1848。
  15。　If　Mr　Mill　had　wished　to　show　the　difference　in　result
  between　consumption　and　sale；　he　should　have　represented　the
  hardware　merchant　as　consuming　his　own　goods　instead　of　selling
  them；　similarly；　the　silver　merchant　as　consuming　his　own　goods
  instead　of　welling　them。　Had　he　done　this；　he　would　have　made　his
  position　clearer；　though　less　tenable；　and　perhaps　this　was　the
  position　he　really　intended　to　take；　tacitly　involving　his
  theory；　elsewhere　stated；　and　shown　in　the　sequel　of　this　paper
  to　be　false；　that　demand　for　commodities　is　not　demand　for
  labour。　But　by　the　most　diligent　scrutiny　of　the　paragraph　now
  under　examination；　I　cannot　determine　whether　it　is　a　fallacy
  pure　and　simple；　or　the　half　of　one　fallacy　supported　by　the
  whole　of　a　greater　one；　so　that　I　treat　it　here　on　the　kinder
  assumption　that　it　is　one　fallacy　only。
  16。　I　take　Mr　Helps'　estimate　in　his　essay　on　War。
  17。　Also　when　the　wrought　silver　vases　of　Spain　were　dashed　to
  fragments　by　our　custom…house　officers；　because　bullion　might　be
  imported　free　of　duty；　but　not　brains；　was　the　axe　that　broke
  them　productive？　　the　artist　who　wrought　them　unproductive？　Or
  again。　If　the　woodman's　axe　is　productive；　is　the　executioner's？
  as　also；　if　the　hemp　of　a　cable　be　productive；　does　not　the
  productiveness　of　hemp　in　a　halter　depend　on　its　moral　more　than
  on　its　material　application？
  18。　Filigree：　that　is　to　say；　generally；　ornament　dependent　on
  complexity；　not　on　art。
  19。　These　statements　sound　crude　in　their　brevity；　but　will　be
  found　of　the　utmost　importance　when　they　are　developed。　Thus；　in
  the　above　instance；　economists　have　never　perceived　that
  disposition　to　buy　is　a　wholly　moral　element　in　demand：　that　is
  to　say；　when　you　give　a　man　half…a…crown；　it　depends　on　his
  disposition　whether　he　is　rich　or　poor　with　it　　whether　he　will
  buy　disease；　ruin；　and　hatred；　or　buy　health；　advancement；　and
  domestic　love。　And　thus　the　agreeableness　or　exchange　value　of
  every　offered　commodity　depends　on　production；　not　merely　of　the
  commodity；　but　of　buyers　of　it；　therefore　on　the　education　of
  buyers；　and　on　all　the　moral　elements　by　which　their　disposition
  to　buy　this；　or　that；　is　formed。　I　will　illustrate　and　expand
  into　final　consequences　every　one　of　these　definitions　in　its
  place：　at　present　they　can　only　be　given　with　extremest　brevity；
  for　in　order　to　put　the　subject　at　once　in　a　connected　form
  before　the　reader；　I　have　thrown　into　one；　the　opening
  definitions　of　four　chapters；　namely；　of　that　on　Value　（〃Ad
  Valorem〃）；　on　Price　（〃Thirty　Pieces〃）；　on　Production　（〃Demeter〃）；
  and　on　Economy　（〃The　Law　of　the　House〃）。
  20。　Perhaps　it　may　be　said；　in　farther　support　of　Mr　Ricardo；
  that　he　meant；　〃when　the　utility　is　constant　or　given；　the　price
  varies　as　the　quantity　of　labour。〃　If　he　meant　this；　he　should
  have　said　it；　but；　had　he　meant　it；　he　could　have　hardly　missed
  the　necessary　result；　that　utility　would　be　one　measure　of　price
  （which　he　expressly　denies　it　to　be）；　and　that；　to　prove
  saleableness；　he　had　to　prove　a　given　quantity　of　utility；　as
  well　as　a　given　quantity　of　labour：　to　wit；　in　his　own　instance；
  that　the　deer　and　fish　would　each　feed　the　same　number　of　men；
  for　the　same　number　of　days；　with　equal　pleasure　to　their
  palates。　The　fact　is；　he　did　not　know　what　he　meant　himself。　The
  general　idea　which　he　had　derived　from　commercial　experience；
  without　being　able　to　analyze　it；　was；　that　when　the　demand　is
  constant；　the　price　varies　as　the　quantity　of　labour　required　for
  production；　or；　　using　the　formula　I　gave　in　last　paper　　when
  y　is　constant；　x　y　varies　as　x。　But　demand　never　is；　nor　can　be；
  ultimately　constant；　if　x　varies　distinctly；　for；　as　price　rises；
  consumers　fall　away；　and　as　soon　as　there　is　a　monopoly　（and　all
  scarcity　is　a　form　of　monopoly；　so　that　every　commodity　is
  affected　occasionally　by　some　colour　of　monopoly）；　y　becomes　the
  most　influential　condition　of　the　price。　Thus　the　price　of　a
  painting　depends　less　on　its　merits　than　on　the　interest　taken　in
  it　by　the　public；　the　price　of　singing　less　on　the　labour　of　the
  singer　than　the　number　of　persons　who　desire　to　hear　him；　and　the
  price　of　gold　less　on　the　scarcity　which　affects　it　in　common
  with　cerium　or　iridium；　than　on　the　sunlight　colour　and
  unalterable　purity　by　which