Unto　This　Last
  John　Ruskin
  1860
  Essays　from　the　Cornhill　Magazine　1860
  reprinted　as　Unto　This　Last　in　1862
  The　Roots　of　Honour
  Among　the　delusions　which　at　different　periods　have　possessed
  themselves　of　the　minds　of　large　masses　of　the　human　race；
  perhaps　the　most　curious　　certainly　the　least　creditable　　is
  the　modern　soi…disant　science　of　political　economy；　based　on　the
  idea　that　an　advantageous　code　of　social　action　may　be　determined
  irrespectively　of　the　influence　of　social　affection。
  Of　course；　as　in　the　instances　of　alchemy；　astrology；
  witchcraft；　and　other　such　popular　creeds；　political　economy；　has
  a　plausible　idea　at　the　root　of　it。　〃The　social　affections；〃　says
  the　economist；　〃are　accidental　and　disturbing　elements　in　human
  nature；　but　avarice　and　the　desire　of　progress　are　constant
  elements。　Let　us　eliminate　the　inconstants；　and；　considering　the
  human　being　merely　as　a　covetous　machine；　examine　by　what　laws　of
  labour；　purchase；　and　sale；　the　greatest　accumulative　result　in
  wealth　is　obtainable。　Those　laws　once　determined；　it　will　be　for
  each　individual　afterwards　to　introduce　as　much　of　the　disturbing
  affectionate　element　as　he　chooses；　and　to　determine　for　himself
  the　result　on　the　new　conditions　supposed。〃
  This　would　be　a　perfectly　logical　and　successful　method　of
  analysis；　if　the　accidentals　afterwards　to　be　introduced　were　of
  the　same　nature　as　the　powers　first　examined。　Supposing　a　body　in
  motion　to　be　influenced　by　constant　and　inconstant　forces；　it　is
  usually　the　simplest　way　of　examining　its　course　to　trace　it
  first　under　the　persistent　conditions；　and　afterwards　introduce
  the　causes　of　variation。　But　the　disturbing　elements　in　the
  social　problem　are　not　of　the　same　nature　as　the　constant　ones：
  they　alter　the　essence　of　the　creature　under　examination　the
  moment　they　are　added；　they　operate；　not　mathematically；　but
  chemically；　introducing　conditions　which　render　all　our　previous
  knowledge　unavailable。　We　made　learned　experiments　upon　pure
  nitrogen；　and　have　convinced　ourselves　that　it　is　a　very
  manageable　gas：　but；　behold！　the　thing　which　we　have　practically
  to　deal　with　is　its　chloride；　and　this；　the　moment　we　touch　it　on
  our　established　principles；　sends　us　and　or　apparatus　through　the
  ceiling。
  Observe；　I　neither　impugn　nor　doubt　the　conclusion　of　the
  science　if　its　terms　are　accepted。　I　am　simply　uninterested　in
  then；　as　I　should　be　in　those　of　a　science　of　gymnastics　which
  assumed　that　men　had　no　skeletons。　It　might　be　shown；　on　that
  supposition；　that　it　would　be　advantageous　to　roll　the　students
  up　into　pellets；　flatten　them　into　cakes；　or　stretch　them　into
  cables；　and　that　when　these　results　were　effected；　the
  re…insertion　of　the　skeleton　would　be　attended　with　various
  inconveniences　to　their　constitution。　The　reasoning　might　be
  admirable；　the　conclusions　true；　and　the　science　deficient　only
  in　applicability。　Modern　political　economy　stands　on　a　precisely
  similar　basis。　Assuming；　not　that　the　human　being　has　no
  skeleton；　but　that　it　is　all　skeleton；　it　founds　an　ossifiant
  theory　of　progress　on　this　negation　of　a　soul；　and　having　shown
  the　utmost　that　may　be　made　of　bones；　and　constructed　a　number　of
  interesting　geometrical　figures　with　death's…head　and　humeri；
  successfully　proves　the　inconvenience　of　the　reappearance　of　a
  soul　among　these　corpuscular　structures。　I　do　not　deny　the　truth
  of　this　theory：　I　simply　deny　its　applicability　to　the　present
  phase　of　the　world。
  This　inapplicability　has　been　curiously　manifested　during　the
  embarrassment　caused　by　the　late　strikes　of　our　workmen。　Here
  occurs　one　of　the　simplest　cases；　in　a　pertinent　and　positive
  form；　of　the　first　vital　problem　which　political　economy　has　to
  deal　with　（the　relation　between　employer　and　employed）；　and；　at　a
  severe　crisis；　when　lives　in　multitudes　and　wealth　in　masses　are
  at　stake；　the　political　economists　are　helpless　　practically
  mute：　no　demonstrable　solution　of　the　difficulty　can　be　given　by
  them；　such　as　may　convince　or　calm　the　opposing　parties。
  Obstinately　the　masters　take　one　view　of　the　matter。　obstinately
  the　operatives　another；　and　no　political　science　can　set　them　at
  one。
  It　would　be　strange　if　it　could；　it　being　not　by　〃science〃　of
  any　kind　that　men　were　ever　intended　to　be　set　at　one。　Disputant
  after　disputant　vainly　strives　to　show　that　the　interests　of　the
  masters　are；　or　are　not；　antagonistic　to　those　of　the　men：　none
  of　the　pleaders　ever　seeming　to　remember　that　it　does　not
  absolutely　or　always　follow　that　the　persons　must　he　antagonistic
  because　their　interests　are。　If　there　is　only　a　crust　of　bread　in
  the　house；　and　mother　and　children　are　starving；　their　interests
  are　not　the　same。　If　the　mother　eats　it；　the　children　want　it；　if
  the　children　eat　it；　the　mother　must　go　hungry　to　her　work。　yet
  it　does　not　necessarily　follow　that　there　will　be　〃antagonism〃
  between　them；　that　they　will　fight　for　the　crust；　and　that　the
  mother；　being　strongest；　will　get　it；　and　eat　it。　Neither；　in　any
  other　case；　whatever　the　relations　of　the　persons　may　be；　can　it
  be　assumed　for　certain　that；　because　their　interests　are　diverse；
  they　must　necessarily　regard　each　other　with　hostility；　and　use
  violence　or　cunning　to　obtain　the　advantage。
  Even　if　this　were　so；　and　it　were　as　just　as　it　is　convenient
  to　consider　men　as　actuated　by　no　other　moral　influences　than
  those　which　affect　rats　or　swine；　the　logical　conditions　of　the
  question　are　still　indeterminable。　It　can　never　be　shown
  generally　either　that　the　interests　of　master　and　labourer　are
  alike；　or　that　they　are　opposed；　for；　according　to　circumstances；
  they　may　be　either。　It　is；　indeed；　always　the　interest　of　both
  that　the　work　should　be　rightly　done；　and　a　just　price　obtained
  for　it；　but；　in　the　division　of　profits；　the　gain　of　the　one　may
  or　may　not　be　the　loss　of　the　other。　It　is　not　the　master's
  interest　to　pay　wages　so　low　as　to　leave　the　men　sickly　and
  depressed；　nor　the　workman's　interest　to　be　paid　high　wages　if
  the　smallness　of　the　master's　profit　hinders　him　from　enlarging
  his　business；　or　conducting　it　in　a　safe　and　liberal　way。　A
  stoker　ought　not　to　desire　high　pay　if　the　company　is　too　poor　to
  keep　the　engine…wheels　in　repair。
  And　the　varieties　of　circumstances　which　influence　these
  reciprocal　interests　are　so　endless；　that　all　endeavour　to　deduce
  rules　of　action　from　balance　of　expediency　is　in　vain。　And　it　is
  meant　to　be　in　vain。　For　no　human　actions　ever　were　intended　by
  the　maker　of　men　to　be　guided　by　balances　of　expediency；　but　by
  balances　of　justice。　He　has　therefore　rendered　all　endeavours　to
  determine　expediency　futile　for　evermore。　No　man　ever　knew；　or
  can　know；　what　will　be　the　ultimate　result　to　himself；　or　to
  others；　of　any　given　line　of　conduct。　But　every　man　may　know；　and
  most　of　us　do　know；　what　is　a　just　and　unjust　act。　And　all　of　us
  may　know　also；　that　the　consequences　of　justice　will　be
  ultimately　the　best　possible；　both　to　others　and　ourselves；
  though　we　can　neither　say　what　is　best；　or　how　it　is　likely　to
  come　to　pass。
  I　have　said　balances　of　justice；　meaning；　in　the　term
  justice；　to　include　affection；　　such　affection　as　one　man　owes
  to　another。　All　right　relations　between　master　and　operative；　and
  all　their　best　interests；　ultimately　depend　on　these。
  We　shall　find　the　best　and　simplest　illustration　of　the
  relations　of　master　and　operative　in　the　position　of　domestic
  servants。
  We　will　suppose　that　the　master　of　a　household　desires　only
  to　get　as　much　work　out　of　his　servants　as　he　can；　at　the　rate　of
  wages　he　gives。　He　never　allows　them　to　be　idle；　feeds　them　as
  poorly　and　lodges　them　as　ill　as　they　will　endure；　and　in　all
  things　pushes　his　requirements　to　the　exact　point　beyond　which　he
  cannot　go　without　forcing　the　servant　to　leave　him。　In　doing
  this；　there　is　no　violation　on　his　part　of　what　is　commonly
  called　〃justice。〃　He　agrees　with　the　domestic　for　his　whole　time
  ad　service；　and　takes　them；　　the　limits　of　hardship　in
  treatment　being　fixed　by　the　practice　of　other　masters　in　his
  neighbourhood；　that　is　to　say；　by　the　current　rate　of　wages　for
  domestic　labour。　If　the　servant　can　get　a　better　place；　he　is
  free　to　take　one；　and　the　master　can　only　tell　what　is　the　real
  market　value　of　his　labour；　by　requiring　as　much