foreground；　and　accordingly　the　consciousness　of　the　community　of
  interests　will　change　in　intensity。　In　the　periods　in　which　the
  individual's　or　the　family's　technical　economic　life　still　forms；
  without　more　extensive　intercourse；　without　more　elaborate
  division　of　labor；　the　centre　of　gravity　in　economics；　the
  feeling　of　community　in　economic　matters　will　recede。　The　further
  the　division　of　labor　progresses；　the　more　inextricably　will　the
  threads　of　intercourse　involve　the　individual　in　an　insoluble
  social　community；　the　more　the　whole　production　will　assume　the
  character　of　a　general；　not　an　individual　concern。　Then　the
  common　functions　of　the　local　and　the　national　community　will
  thrive；　individuals　will　be　more　and　more　dislodged　by　social
  leaders。　Every　larger　undertaking；　whenever　it　unites
  continuously　a　certain　number　of　men　for　a　common　economic
  purpose；　reveals　itself　as　a　moral　community。　It　governs　the
  external　and　internal　life　of　all　participants；　determines　their
  residence；　school；　division　of　time；　family　life；　to　a　certain
  degree　their　mental　horizon；　education　and　pleasure。　The
  relations　of　those　concerned　necessarily　exchange　a　merely
  economic　for　a　generally　moral　character。　And　therefrom　the
  conception　arises；　here　a　common　production　exists；　hence　a　moral
  community。　And　that　leads　to　the　question：　Is　the　relation
  between　the　participants；　is　the　division　of　the　products　a　just
  one？　And　similar　considerations　follow　for　whole　industries；　for
  whole　social　classes；　and　this　all　the　more；　the　more　frequently
  the　employers　and　the　laborers　are　organized　into　associations
  and　societies。　They　also　result　for　whole　States　and　unions　of
  States。
  The　moral　communities；　which　play　a　part　in　economics；　follow
  sometimes　purely　economic　purposes；　sometimes　other　purposes；　as
  above　all　do　local　communities　and　the　State。　The　narrower　their
  circle；　the　simpler　and　clearer　their　purpose；　the　more　evident
  become　the　qualities；　according　to　which　moral　judgment　compares
  and　classifies　men。　The　more　comprehensive　they　are；　the　more
  manifold　their　purposes；　the　more　complicated　becomes　the
  question　which　qualities　are　concerned；　the　more　fluctuating
  becomes　the　judgment　of　what　is　just；　the　more　indispensable　for
  customs　and　laws　become　conventional　presumptions　and　standards
  in　order　to　attain　something　definite　at　all。
  In　times　of　primitive　culture；　in　the　small　circles　of
  economic　and　moral　communities　all　men；　or　at　least　all　men　able
  to　bear　arms；　may　readily　appear　equal；　and　so　it　there　appears
  just　to　give　each　the　same　allotment　of　land；　the　same　share　of
  booty。　The　guild　sought　to　secure　to　each　member　as　nearly　as
  possible　an　equal　share　of　profit。　With　higher　culture　begins　the
  necessary　discrimination。　Formerly　the　greater　allotments　were
  often　given　to　the　bravest　soldier　and　to　the　noble　families；
  distinctions　now　become　more　general。　All　inherited　preference　is
  considered　just；　in　the　measure　in　which　public　sentiment　values
  not　the　qualities　of　the　single　individual；　but　of　families　as　a
  whole；　a　conception　which　decreases　more　and　more　with　higher
  culture。　Inherited　wealth；　as　long　as　it　appears　necessarily　and
  obviously　coupled　with　its　possessor；　is　under　some　conditions
  regarded　as　a　just　standard　of　the　distribution　of　goods。　So　the
  distribution　of　public　lands　according　to　the　possessions　in
  cattle　and　real　estate　appeared　quite　just　to　many　a　day　laborer
  and　〃kossaeth〃　in　the　eastern　provinces　of　Prussia；　while　to　one
  who　knew　the　public　land　systems　in　France　or　southern　Germany　it
  seemed　an　outrageous　injustice。
  For　all　community　of　production；　labor　is　the　most　obvious
  standard；　hence　perhaps　it　is　the　most　usual；　most　generally
  comprehensible。　As　soon　as　it　becomes　necessary　to　compare　many
  different　kinds　of　labor；　only　an　abstraction　totally　foreign　to
  public　sentiment　will　conceive　the　idea　of　reducing　all　this
  labor　to　mere　quantities　of　handiwork；　natural　public　sentiment
  will　simply　value　more　highly　the　labor　which　requires　more
  education　or　talent。
  Those　qualities　will　always　be　most　highly　considered　which
  serve　the　common　objects；　those　which　only　relate　to　the
  individual　and　his　selfish　aims　are　less　esteemed。　Only　a
  complete　misconception　therefore　could　establish　individual　needs
  as　a　standard　of　distributing　justice。　Older　socialism　wisely
  held　aloof　at　all　times　from　this　aberration。　Even　the　first
  really　social…democratic　platform　in　Germany；　that　of　Eisenach　of
  1869；　did　not　vet　venture　to　commit　such　a　folly。　The　progressive
  victory　of　vulgarity　and　rudeness　first　demanded　in　the　Gotha
  platform　of　1875　the　division　of　the　aggregate　labor　products
  among　individuals　according　to　their　〃reasonable　needs。〃　The
  proviso　of　reasonableness　was　intended　to　prevent　excesses；　it
  does　not　remove　the　low　conception。　With　his　needs　a　man　serves
  himself　only；　with　his　labor；　his　virtue；　his　accomplishments；　he
  serves；　mankind；　and　these　determine　the　judgment　which　esteems
  them　as　just。
  When　the　great　social　communities　which　follow　the　most
  various　interests　and　what　is　just　in　them　are　concerned；　the
  attempt　will　always　be　made；　more　or　less；　to　weigh　the　different
  qualities　and　accomplishments　of　men　in　their　result　and　in　their
  connection　with　the　objects　of　the　community。　Talents　and
  knowledge；　virtues　and　accomplishments；　merit　in　short　is
  considered。　Moral　qualities　are　often　apparently　overlooked；
  great　talents　whose　achievements　and　deeds　are　generally　visible
  are　apparently　over…estimated。　But　only　because　one　is　more
  noticed　than　the　other；　and　the　moral　judgment　which　values
  individuals　according　to　what　they　are　to　the　whole　can　naturally
  only　judge　by　what　it　sees。
  And　therein　lies　the　contrast　between　moral　and　economic
  value。　In　the　ordinary　economic　valuation　activities　and　products
  have　value　in　the　same　measure；　as　individuals　covet　them　for　the
  satisfaction　of　their　personal　needs。　In　the　moral　valuation；　on
  which　the　judgment　as　to　justice　depends；　the　activities　of
  individuals　receive　their　value；　according　as　they　serve　the
  inherent　ends　of　the　whole。　True　justice；　says　Ihering；　is　a
  balancing　between　consequences　and　acts；　which　is　weighed　equally
  to　all　citizens　according　to　the　measure　of　the　value　of　these
  acts　to　society。　Both　valuations　go　in　life　side　by　side；
  combating　and　influencing　one　another。　The　one　rules　the　market；
  the　other　moral　judgments　and　conceptions。　They　approach　each
  other　as　mankind　grows　more　perfect。　Through　what　mechanism　the
  arising　conflicts　are　lessened　and　mitigated；　we　still　have　to
  discuss。
  IV
  If　in　the　economic　order　we　could　recognize　only　the　ruling
  of　blind　forces；　of　selfish　interests；　natural　masses　and
  mechanical　processes；　it　would　be　a　constant　battle；　a　chaotic
  anarchy；　it　would　present　the　〃bellum　omnium　contra　omnes。〃　That
  this　is　not　the　case　was　perceived　by　those　who　saw　in　the
  exertion　of　egoism　the　only　motive　force　of　economic　life；　they
  helped　themselves　over　the　inexplicable　conclusion　that　out　of
  the　blind　struggle　of　selfish　individuals　peaceful　society　should
  grow　out；　with　the　ideal　conception　of　a　pre…established　harmony
  of　forces　as　in　the　conception　of　Leibnitz。　And　yet　any　impartial
  glance　at　life　tells　us　that　this　harmony　does　not　exist；　but
  that　it　is　striven　for　slowly　and　gradually。
  No；　harmony　does　not　exist　per　se；　selfish　impulses　combat
  each　other；　natural　masses　tend　to　destroy　each　other；　the
  mechanical　action　of　natural　forces　interferes　relentlessly　still
  to…day；　the　struggle　for　existence　is　to…day　still　carried　on　in
  the　struggle　of　competition；　the　buoyancy　of　individual　activity
  has　even　with　the　noblest　and　most　distinguished　men　a　flavor　of
  egoism；　with　the　masses　it　is；　inwardly　curbed　indeed　by　the
  moral　results　of　social　life；　the　potent　cause　of　most　actions。
  While　struggle　and　strife　never　cease　they　do　not　preserve　the
  same　character　throughout　the　course　of　history。　The　struggle
  which　ended　in　annihilation；　in　subjugation；　turns　into　a
  peaceful　contest　which　is　decided　by　an　umpire。　The　forms　of
  dependence　grow　milder　and　more　human。　Class　government　grows
  more　moderate。　Every　brutal　strength；　every　undue　assertion　of
  superior　force　is　made　punishable　by　law。　Demand　and　supply；　as
  they　confront　each　other　in　the　different　systems　of　custom　and
  law；　are　quite　different　in　their　result。　In　short　all　emanations
  of　egoism　are　moderated；　regulated　and　restrained　by　the　moral
  cultivation　of　the　labor　of　many　thousand　years。　That　this　is　so
  is　the　simple　consequence　of　those　ideal　conceptions　which
  originate　in　social　life；　form　the　centre　of　all　religions；　all
  systems　of　social　ethics；　all　morals　and　all　law。　And　in　the
  realm　of　these　ideal　conceptions　the　idea　of　justice；　if　not　the
  first　and　only　power；　is　none　the　less　one　of　the　most　important。
  Others　of　equal　might　are　grouped　with　it。　Aside　from　the　idea　of
  God；　of　immortality；　of　perfection　and　of　progress；　the　idea　of
  justice　which　gives　each　one　his　share；　is　confronted　in　the
  field　of　social　policy　by　some　other　ideas。　These　are　in　the
  first　pl