terrible　calamities；　following　each　other　in　the　short　space　of
  fifty　years；　seem　to　have　welded　together；　by　a　community　of
  suffering；　all　ranks　and　races；　at　least　south　of　the　Tweed；　and
  when　the　English　rose　after　the　storm；　they　rose　as　one　homogeneous
  people；　never　to　be　governed　again　by　an　originally　alien　race。　　The
  English　nobility　were；　from　the　time　of　Magna　Charta；　rather　an
  official　nobility；　than；　as　in　most　continental　countries；　a
  separate　caste；　and　whatever　caste　tendencies　had　developed
  themselves　before　the　Wars　of　the　Roses　（as　such　are　certain　to　do
  during　centuries　of　continued　wealth　and　power）；　were　crushed　out　by
  the　great　revolutionary　events　of　the　next　hundred　years。
  Especially　did　the　discovery　of　the　New　World；　the　maritime　struggle
  with　Spain；　the　outburst　of　commerce　and　colonisation　during　the
  reigns　of　Elizabeth　and　James；　help　toward　this　good　result。　　It　was
  in　vain　for　the　Lord　Oxford　of　the　day；　sneering　at　Raleigh's　sudden
  elevation；　to　complain　that　as　on　the　virginals；　so　in　the　State；
  〃Jacks　went　up；　and　heads　went　down。〃　　The　proudest　noblemen　were
  not　ashamed　to　have　their　ventures　on　the　high　seas；　and　to　send
  their　younger　sons　trading；　or　buccaneering；　under　the　conduct　of
  low…born　men　like　Drake；　who　〃would　like　to　see　the　gentleman　that
  would　not　set　his　hand　to　a　rope；　and　hale　and　draw　with　the
  mariners。〃　　Thus　sprang　up　that　respect　for；　even　fondness　for；
  severe　bodily　labour；　which　the　educated　class　of　no　nation　save　our
  own　has　ever　felt；　and　which　has　stood　them　in　such　good　stead；
  whether　at　home　or　abroad。　　Thus；　too；　sprang　up　the　system　of
  society　by　which　（as　the　ballad　sets　forth）　the　squire's　son　might
  be　a　〃'prentice　good；〃　and　marry
  〃The　bailiff's　daughter　dear
  That　dwelt　at　Islington；〃
  without　tarnishing；　as　he　would　have　done　on　the　Continent；　the
  scutcheon　of　his　ancestors。　　That　which　has　saved　England　from　a
  central　despotism；　such　as　crushed；　during　the　eighteenth　century；
  every　nation　on　the　Continent；　is　the　very　same　peculiarity　which
  makes　the　advent　of　the　masses　to　a　share　in　political　power　safe
  and　harmless；　namely；　the　absence　of　caste；　or　rather　（for　there　is
  sure　to　be　a　moral　fact　underlying　and　causing　every　political　fact）
  the　absence　of　that　wicked　pride　which　perpetuates　caste；　forbidding
  those　to　intermarry　whom　nature　and　fact　pronounce　to　be　fit　mates
  before　God　and　man。
  These　views　are　not　mine　only。　　They　have　been　already　set　forth　so
  much　more　forcibly　by　M。　de　Tocqueville；　that　I　should　have　thought
  it　unnecessary　to　talk　about　them；　were　not　the　rhetorical　phrases；
  〃Caste；〃　〃Privileged　Classes；〃　〃Aristocratic　Exclusiveness；〃　and
  such…like；　bandied　about　again　just　now；　as　if　they　represented
  facts。　　If　there　remain　in　this　kingdom　any　facts　which　correspond
  to　those　words；　let　them　be　abolished　as　speedily　as　possible：　　but
  that　such　do　remain　was　not　the　opinion　of　the　master　of　modern
  political　philosophy；　M。　de　Tocqueville。
  He　expresses　his　surprise　〃that　the　fact　which　distinguishes　England
  from　all　other　modern　nations；　and　which　alone　can　throw　light　on
  her　peculiarities；　。　。　。　has　not　attracted　more　attention；　。　。　。　and
  that　habit　has　rendered　it；　as　it　were；　imperceptible　to　the　English
  themselvesthat　England　was　the　only　country　in　which　the　system　of
  caste　had　been　not　only　modified；　but　effectually　destroyed。　　The
  nobility　and　the　middle　classes　followed　the　same　business；　embraced
  the　same　professions；　and；　what　is　far　more　significant；
  intermarried　with　each　other。　　The　daughter　of　the　greatest
  nobleman〃　（and　this；　if　true　of　the　eighteenth　century；　has　become
  far　more　true　of　the　nineteenth）　〃could　already；　without　disgrace；
  marry　a　man　of　yesterday。〃　。　。　。
  〃It　has　often　been　remarked　that　the　English　nobility　has　been　more
  prudent；　more　able；　and　less　exclusive　than　any　other。　　It　would
  have　been　much　nearer　the　truth　to　say；　that　in　England；　for　a　very
  long　time　past；　no　nobility；　properly　so　called；　have　existed；　if　we
  take　the　word　in　the　ancient　and　limited　sense　it　has　everywhere
  else　retained。〃　。　。　。
  〃For　several　centuries　the　word　'gentleman'〃　（he　might　have　added；
  〃burgess〃）　〃has　altogether　changed　its　meaning　in　England；　and　the
  word　'roturier'　has　ceased　to　exist。　　In　each　succeeding　century　it
  is　applied　to　persons　placed　somewhat　lower　in　the　social　scale〃　（as
  the　〃bagman〃　of　Pickwick　has　become；　and　has　deserved　to　become；　the
  〃commercial　gentleman〃　of　our　day）。　　〃At　length　it　travelled　with
  the　English　to　America；　where　it　is　used　to　designate　every　citizen
  indiscriminately。　　Its　history　is　that　of　democracy　itself。〃　。　。　。
  〃If　the　middle　classes　of　England；　instead　of　making　war　upon　the
  aristocracy；　have　remained　so　intimately　connected　with　it；　it　is
  not　especially　because　the　aristocracy　is　open　to　all；　but　rather；
  because　its　outline　was　indistinct；　and　its　limit　unknown：　　not　so
  much　because　any　man　might　be　admitted　into　it；　as　because　it　was
  impossible　to　say　with　certainty　when　he　took　rank　there：　　so　that
  all　who　approached　it　might　look　on　themselves　as　belonging　to　it；
  might　take　part　in　its　rule；　and　derive　either　lustre　or　profit　from
  its　influence。〃
  Just　so；　and　therefore　the　middle　classes　of　Britain；　of　whatever
  their　special　political　party；　are　conservative　in　the　best　sense　of
  that　word。
  For　there　are　not　three；　but　only　two；　classes　in　England；　namely；
  rich　and　poor：　　those　who　live　by　capital　（from　the　wealthiest
  landlord　to　the　smallest　village　shopkeeper）；　and　those　who　live　by
  hand…labour。　　Whether　the　division　between　those　two　classes　is
  increasing　or　not；　is　a　very　serious　question。　　Continued
  legislation　in　favour　of　the　hand…labourer；　and　a　beneficence
  towards　him；　when　in　need；　such　as　no　other　nation　on　earth　has　ever
  shown；　have　done　much　to　abolish　the　moral　division。　　But　the　social
  division　has　surely　been　increased　during　the　last　half　century；　by
  the　inevitable　tendency；　both　in　commerce　and　agriculture；　to　employ
  one　large　capital；　where　several　small　ones　would　have　been　employed
  a　century　ago。　　The　large　manufactory；　the　large　shop；　the　large
  estate；　the　large　farm；　swallows　up　the　small　ones。　　The　yeoman；　the
  thrifty　squatter　who　could　work　at　two　or　three　trades　as　well　as
  till　his　patch　of　moor；　the　hand…loom　weaver；　the　skilled　village
  craftsman；　have　all　but　disappeared。　　The　handworker；　finding　it
  more　and　more　difficult　to　invest　his　savings；　has　been　more　and
  more　tempted　to　squander　them。　　To　rise　to　the　dignity　of　a
  capitalist；　however　small；　was　growing　impossible　to　him；　till　the
  rise　of　that　co…operative　movement；　which　will　do　more　than　any
  social　or　political　impulse　in　our　day　for　the　safety　of　English
  society；　and　the　loyalty　of　the　English　working　classes。　　And
  meanwhileere　that　movement　shall　have　spread　throughout　the　length
  and　breadth　of　the　land；　and　have　been　applied；　as　it　surely　will　be
  some　day；　not　only　to　distribution；　not　only　to　manufacture；　but　to
  agriculture　likewisetill　then；　the　best　judges　of　the　working
  men's　worth　must　be　their　employers；　and　especially　the　employers　of
  the　northern　manufacturing　population。　　What　their　judgment　is；　is
  sufficiently　notorious。　　Those　who　depend　most　on　the　working　men；
  who　have　the　best　opportunities　of　knowing　them；　trust　them　most
  thoroughly。　　As　long　as　great　manufacturers　stand　forward　as　the
  political　sponsors　of　their　own　workmen；　it　behoves　those　who　cannot
  have　had　their　experience；　to　consider　their　opinion　as　conclusive。
  As　for　that　〃influence　of　the　higher　classes〃　which　is　said　to　be
  endangered　just　now；　it　will　exist；　just　as　much　as　it　deserves　to
  exist。　　Any　man　who　is　superior　to　the　many；　whether　in　talents；
  education；　refinement；　wealth；　or　anything　else；　will　always　be　able
  to　influence　a　number　of　menand　if　he　thinks　it　worth　his　while；
  of　votesby　just　and　lawful　means。　　And　as　for　unjust　and　unlawful
  means；　let　those　who　prefer　them　keep　up　heart。　　The　world　will　go
  on　much　as　it　did　before；　and　be　always　quite　bad　enough　to　allow
  bribery　and　corruption；　jobbery　and　nepotism；　quackery　and
  arrogance；　their　full　influence　over　our　home　and　foreign　policy。
  An　extension　of　the　suffrage；　however　wide；　will　not　bring　about　the
  millennium。　　It　will　merely　make　a　large　number　of　Englishmen
  contented　and　loyal；　instead　of　discontented　and　disloyal。　　It　may
  make；　too；　the　educated　and　wealthy　classes　wiser　by　awakening　a
  wholesome　fearperhaps；　it　may　be；　by　awakening　a　chivalrous
  emulation。　　It　may　put　the　younger　men　of　the　present　aristocracy
  upon　their　mettle；　and　stir　them　up　to　prove　that　they　are　not　in
  the　same　effete　condition　as　was　the　French　noblesse　in　1789。　　It
  may　lead　them　to　take　the　warnings　which　have　been　addressed　to
  them；　for　the　last　thirty　years；　by　their　truest　friendsoften　by
  kinsmen　of　their　own。　　It　may　lead　them　t