persons　and　things；　they　act　in　one　place　in　one　way　and　in　another
  place　in　another　way。　　Here；　a　department；　acting　for　itself　and
  without　referring　elsewhere；　puts　an　embargo　on　vessels；　while
  another　orders　the　expulsion　of　a　military　detachment　essential　for
  the　security　of　places　devastated　by　ruffians；　and　the　minister；　who
  responds　to　the　demands　of　those　interested；　replies：　'Such　are　the
  orders　of　the　department。'　Elsewhere　are　administrative　bodies
  which；　the　moment　the　Assembly　decrees　relief　of　consciences　and　the
  freedom　of　nonjuring　priests；　order　the　latter　out　of　their　homes
  within　24　hours。　　Always　in　advance　of　or　lagging　behind　the　laws；
  alternately　bold　and　cowardly；　daring　all　things　when　seconded　by
  public　license；　and　daring　nothing　to　repress　it；　eager　to　abuse
  their　momentary　authority　against　the　weak　in　order　to　acquire
  titles　to　popularity　in　the　future；　incapable　of　maintaining　order
  except　at　the　expense　of　public　safety　and　tranquility；　entangled
  in　the　reins　of　their　new　and　complex　administration；　adding　the
  fury　of　passion　to　incapacity　and　inexperience；　such　are；　for　the
  most　part；　the　men　sprung　from　nothing；　void　of　ideas　and　drunk　with
  pretension；　on　whom　now　rests　responsibility　for　public　powers　and
  resources；　the　interest　of　security；　and　the　foundations　of　the
  power　of　government。　　In　all　sections　of　the　nation；　in　every　branch
  of　the　administration；　in　every　report；　we　detect　the　confusion　of
  authorities；　the　uncertainty　of　obedience；　the　dissolution　of　all
  restraints；　the　absence　of　all　resources；　the　deplorable
  complication　of　enervated　springs；　without　any　of　the　means　of　real
  power；　and；　for　their　sole　support；　laws　which；　in　supposing　France
  to　be　peopled　with　men　without　vices　or　passions；　abandon　humanity
  to　its　primitive　state　of　independence。〃
  A　few　months　after　this；　in　the　beginning　of　1792；　Malouet　sums　up
  all　in　one　phrase：
  〃It　is　the　Government　of　Algiers　without　the　Dey。〃
  II。
  Independence　of　the　municipalities。　…　The　causes　of　their
  initiative。　…　Sentiment　of　danger。…　Issy…l'Evêque　in　1789。　…　Exalted
  pride。　…　Brittany　in　1790。…　Usurpations　of　the　municipalities。　…
  Capture　of　the　citadels。　…　Violence　increased　against　their
  commanders。　…　Stoppage　of　convoys。…　Powerlessness　of　the　Directories
  and　the　ministers。　…　Marseilles　in　1790。
  Things　could　not　work　otherwise。　　For；　before　the　6th　of　October；
  and　the　King's　captivity　in　Paris；　the　Government　had　already　been
  destroyed。　　Now；　through　the　successive　decrees　of　the　Assembly；　it
  is　legally　done　away　with；　and　each　local　group　is　left　to　itself。　…
  The　intendants　have　fled；　military　commanders　are　not　obeyed；　the
  bailiwicks　dare　hold　no　courts；　the　parliaments　are　suspended；　and
  seven　months　elapse　before　the　district　and　department
  administrations　are　elected；　a　year　before　the　new　judgeships　are
  instituted；　while　afterwards；　as　well　as　before；　the　real　power　is
  in　the　hands　of　the　communes。　…　The　commune　must　arm　itself；　appoint
  its　own　chiefs；　provide　its　own　supplies；　protect　itself　against
  brigands；　and　feed　its　own　poor。　　It　has　to　sell　its　national
  property；　install　the　constitutional　priest；　and；　amidst　so　many
  eager　passions　and　injured　interest；　accomplish　the　transformation
  by　which　a　new　society　replaces　the　ancient　one。　　It　alone　has　to
  ward　off　the　perpetual　and　constantly　reviving　dangers　which　assail
  it　or　which　it　imagines。　　These　are　great；　and　it　exaggerates　them。
  It　is　inexperienced　and　alarmed。　　It　is　not　surprising　that；　in　the
  exercise　of　its　extemporized　power；　it　should　pass　beyond　its
  natural　or　legal　limit；　and　without　being　aware　of　it；　overstep　the
  metaphysical　line　which　the　Constitution　defines　between　its　rights
  and　the　rights　of　the　State。　　Neither　hunger；　fear；　rage；　nor　any　of
  the　popular　passions　can　wait；　there　is　no　time　to　refer　to　Paris。
  Action　is　necessary；　immediate　action；　and；　with　the　means　at　hand；
  they　must　save　themselves　as　well　as　they　can。　　This　or　that　mayor
  of　a　village　is　soon　to　find　himself　a　general　and　a　legislator。
  This　or　that　petty　town　is　to　give　itself　a　charter　like　Laon　or
  Vezelay　in　the　twelfth　century。　　〃On　the　6th　of　October；　1789；＇14＇
  near　Autun；　the　market…town　of　Issy…l'Evêque　declares　itself　an
  independent　State。　　The　parish　assembly　is　convoked　by　the　priest；
  M。　　Carion；　who　is　appointed　member　of　the　administrative　committee
  and　of　the　new　military　staff。　　In　full　session　he　secures　the
  adoption　of　a　complete　code；　political；　judiciary；　penal　and
  military；　consisting　of　sixty　articles。　　Nothing　is　overlooked；　we
  find　ordinances　concerning
  〃the　town　police；　the　laying　out　of　streets　and　public　squares；　the
  repairs　of　prisons；　the　road　taxes　and　price　of　grain；　the
  administration　of　justice；　fines；　confiscations；　and　the　diet　of　the
  National　Guards。〃
  He　is　a　provincial　Solon；＇15＇　zealous　for　the　public　welfare；　and　a
  man　of　executive　power；　he　expounds　his　ordinances　from　the　pulpit；
  and　threatens　the　refractory。　　He　passes　decrees　and　renders
  judgments　in　the　town…hall：　outside　the　town　limits；　at　the　head　of
  the　National　Guard；　saber　in　hand；　he　will　enforce　his　own
  decisions。　　He　causes　it　to　be　decided　that；　on　the　written　order　of
  the　committee；　every　citizen　may　be　imprisoned。　　He　imposes　and
  collects　taxes；　he　has　boundary　walls　torn　down；　he　goes　in　person
  to　the　houses　of　cultivators　and　makes　requisitions　for　grain；　he
  seizes　the　convoys　which　have　not　deposited　their　quote　in　his　own
  richly　stored　granaries。　　One　day；　preceded　by　a　drummer；　he　marches
  outside　the　walls；　makes　proclamation　of　〃his　agrarian　laws；〃　and
  proceeds　at　once　to　the　partition　of　the　territory；　and；　by　virtue
  of　the　ancient　communal　or　church　property　rights；　to　assign　to
  himself　a　portion　of　it。　　All　this　is　done　in　public　and
  consciously；　the　notary　and　the　scrivener　being　called　in　to　draw　up
  the　official　record　of　his　acts；　he　is　satisfied　that　human　society
  has　come　to　an　end；　and　that　each　local　group　has　the　right　to　begin
  over　again　and　apply　in　its　own　way　the　Constitution　which　it　has
  accorded　to　itself　without　reference　to　anybody　else。　…　This　man；
  undoubtedly；　talks　too　loudly；　an　proceeds　too　quickly；　and　first
  the　bailiwick；　next　the　Chatelet；　and　afterwards　the　National
  Assembly　temporarily　put　a　stop　to　his　proceedings；　but　his
  principle　is　a　popular　one；　and　the　forty　thousand　communes　of
  France　are　about　to　act　like　so　many　distinct　republics；　under　the
  sentimental　and　constantly　more　powerless　reprimands　of　the　central
  authority。
  Excited　and　invigorated　by　a　new　sentiment；　men　now　abandon
  themselves　to　the　proud　consciousness　of　their　own　power　and
  independence。　　Nowhere　is　greater　satisfaction　found　than　among　the
  new　local　chiefs；　the　municipal　officers　and　commanders　of　the
  National　Guard；　for　never　before　has　such　supreme　authority　and　such
  great　dignity　fallen　upon　men　previously　so　submissive　and　so
  insignificant。　…　Formerly　the　subordinates　of　an　intendant　or　sub…
  delegate；　appointed；　maintained；　and　ill…used　by　him；　kept　aloof
  from　transactions　of　any　importance；　unable　to　defend　themselves
  except　by　humble　protestations　against　the　aggravation　of　taxation；
  concerned　with　precedence　and　the　conflicts　of　etiquette；＇16＇　plain
  townspeople　or　peasants　who　never　dreamt　of　interfering　in　military
  matters；　henceforth　become　sovereigns　in　all　military　and　civil
  affairs。　　This　or　that　mayor　or　syndic　of　a　little　town　or　parish；　a
  petty　bourgeois　or　villager　in　a　blouse；　whom　the　intendant　or
  military　commander　could　imprison　at　will；　now　orders　a　gentleman；　a
  captain　of　dragoons；　to　march　or　stand　still；　and　the　captain　stands
  still　or　marches　at　his　command。　　On　the　same　bourgeois　or　villager
  depends　the　safety　of　the　neighboring　chateau；　of　the　large　land…
  owner　and　his　family；　of　the　prelate；　and　of　all　the　prominent
  personages　of　the　district。　　in　order　that　they　may　be　out　of　harm's
  way　he　must　protect　them；　they　will　be　pillaged　if；　in　case　of
  insurrection；　he　does　not　send　troops　and　the　National　Guard　to
  their　assistance。　　It　is　he　who；　lending　or　refusing　public　force　to
  the　collection　of　their　rents；　gives　them　or　deprives　them　of　the
  means　of　living。　　He　accordingly　rules；　and　on　the　sole　condition　of
  ruling　according　to　the　wishes　of　his　equals；　the　vociferous
  multitude；　the　restless；　dominant　mob　which　has　elected　him。　…　In
  the　towns；　especially；　and　notably　in　the　large　towns；　the　contrast
  between　what　he　was　and　what　he　is　immense；　since　to　the　plenitude
  of　his　power　is　added　the　extent　of　his　jurisdiction。　　Judge　of　the
  effect　on　his　brain　in　cities　like　those　of　Marseilles；　Bordeaux；
  Nantes；　Rouen　and　Lyons；　where　he　holds　in　his　hand　the　lives　and
  property　of　eighty　or　a　hundred　thousand　men。　　And　the　more　as；　amid
  the　municipal　officers　of　the　towns；　three…quarters　of　them；
  prosecutors　or　lawyer