municipal　officers；　and　from　six　to　forty…two　notables；　in　the
  selection　of　twelve　district　administrators　and　thirty…six
  departmental　administrators；　especially　as　the　list　must　be　of　a
  double　length　and　contain　twice　as　many　officers　as　there　are　places
  to　fill；　immediate　agreement　is　impossible。　　In　every　important
  election　the　electors　are　sure　to　be　in　a　state　of　agitation　a　month
  beforehand；　while　four　weeks　of　discussion　and　caucus　is　not　too
  much　to　give　to　inquiries　about　candidates；　and　to　canvassing
  voters。　　Let　us　add；　accordingly；　this　long　preface　to　each　of　the
  elections；　so　long　and　so　often　repeated；　and　now　sum　up　the
  troubles　and　disturbances；　all　this　loss　of　time；　all　the　labor
  which　the　process　demands。　　Each　convocation　of　the　primary
  assemblies；　summons　to　the　town…hall　or　principal　town　of　the
  canton；　for　one　or　for　several　days；　about　three　million　five
  hundred　thousand　electors　of　the　first　degree。　　Each　convocation　of
  the　assemblies　of　the　second　class　compels　the　attendance　and
  sojourn　at　the　principal　town　of　the　department；　and　again　in　the
  principal　town　of　the　district；　of　about　three　hundred　and　fifty
  thousand　elected　electors。　　Each　revision　or　re…election　in　the
  National　Guard　gathers　together　on　the　public　square；　or　subjects　to
  roll…call　at　the　town…hall；　three　or　four　millions　of　National
  Guards。　　Each　federation；　after　exacting　the　same　gathering　or　the
  same　roll…call；　sends　delegates　by　hundreds　of　thousands　to　the
  principal　towns　of　the　districts　and　departments；　and　tens　of
  thousands　to　Paris。　…　The　powers　thus　instituted　at　the　cost　of　so
  great　an　effort；　require　an　equal　effort　to　make　them　work；　one
  branch　alone　of　the　administration＇28＇　keeps　2；988　officials　busy　in
  the　departments；　6；950　in　the　districts；　1；175；000　in　the　communes　…
  in　all；　nearly　one　million　two　hundred　thousand　administrators；
  whose　places；　as　we　have　seen　above；　are　no　sinecures。　　Never　did　a
  political　machine　require　so　prodigious　an　expenditure　of　force　to
  set　it　up　and　keep　it　in　motion。　　In　the　United　States；　where　it　is
  now　（around　1875）　deranged　by　its　own　action；　it　has　been　estimated
  that；　to　meet　the　intentions　of　the　law　and　keep　each　wheel　in　its
  proper　place；　it　would　be　necessary　for　each　citizen　to　give　one
  whole　day　in　each　week；　or　on…sixth　of　his　time；　to　public　business。
  In　France；　under　the　newly　adopted　system；　where　disorder　is
  universal；　where　the　duty　of　National　Guard　is　added　to　and
  complicates　that　of　elector　and　administrator；　I　estimate　that　two
  days　would　be　necessary。　　This　is　what　the　Constitution　comes　to；
  this　is　its　essential　and　supreme　requirement：　each　active　citizen
  has　to　give　up　one…third　of　his　time　to　public　affairs。
  Now；　these　twelve　hundred　thousand　administrators　and　three　or　four
  million　electors　and　National　Guards；　are　just　the　men　in　France　who
  have　the　least　leisure。　　The　class　of　active　citizens；　indeed；
  comprises　about　all　the　men　who　labor　with　their　hands　or　with　their
  heads。　　The　law　exempts　only　domestics　devoted　to　personal　service
  or　common　laborers　who；　possessing　no　property　or　income；　earn　less
  than　twenty…one　sous　a　day。　　Every　journeyman…miller；　the　smallest
  farmer；　every　village　proprietor　of　a　cottage　or　of　a　vegetable…
  garden；　any　ordinary　workman；　votes　at　the　primary　meetings；　and　may
  become　a　municipal　officer。　　Again；　if　he　pays　ten　francs　a　year
  direct　tax；　if　he　is　a　farmer　or　yeomen　on　any　property　which　brings
  him　in　four　hundred　francs；　if　his　rent　is　one　hundred　and　fifty
  francs；　he　may　become　an　elected　elector　and　an　administrator　of　the
  district　or　department。　　According　to　this　standard　the　eligible　are
  innumerable；　in　Doubs；　in　1790；＇29＇　they　form　two…thirds　of　the
  active　citizens。　　Thus；　the　way　to　office　is　open　to　all；　or　almost
  all；　and　the　law　has　taken　no　precaution　whatever　to　reserve　or
  provide　places　for　the　elite；　who　could　best　fill　them。　　On　the
  contrary；　the　nobles；　the　ecclesiastical　dignitaries；　the　members　of
  the　parliaments；　the　grand　functionaries　of　the　ancient　regime；　the
  upper　class　of　the　bourgeoisie；　almost　all　the　rich　who　possess
  leisure；　are　practically　excluded　from　the　elections　by　violence；
  and　from　the　various　offices　by　public　opinion：　they　soon　retire
  into　private　life；　and；　through　discouragement　or　disgust；　through
  monarchical　or　religious　scruples；　abandon　entirely　a　public　career。
  …　The　burden　of　the　new　system　falls；　accordingly；　on　the　most
  occupied　portion　of　the　community：　on　merchants；　manufacturers；
  agents　of　the　law；　employees；　shopkeepers；　artisans；　and
  cultivators。　　They　are　the　people　who　must　give　up　one…third　of
  their　time　already　appropriated；　neglect　private　for　public
  business；　leave　their　harvests；　their　bench；　their　shop；　or　their
  briefs　to　escort　convoys　and　patrol　the　highways；　to　run　off　to　the
  principal　town　of　the　canton；　district；　or　department；　and　stay　and
  sit　there　in　the　town…hall；＇30＇　subject　to　a　deluge　of　phrases　and
  papers；　conscious　that　they　are　forced　to　gratuitous　drudgery；　and
  that　this　drudgery　is　of　little　advantage　to　the　public。　…　For　the
  first　six　months　they　do　it　with　good　grace；　their　zeal　in　penning
  memorials；　in　providing　themselves　with　arms　against　〃brigands；〃　and
  in　suppressing　taxes；　rents；　and　tithes；　is　active　enough。　　But　now
  that　this　much　is　obtained　or　extorted；　decreed　as　a　right；　or
  accomplished　in　fact；　they　must　not　be　further　disturbed。　　They　need
  the　whole　of　their　time：　they　have　their　crops　to　get　in；　their
  customers　to　serve；　their　orders　to　give；　their　books　to　make　up；
  their　credits　to　adjust；　all　which　are　urgent　matters；　and　neither
  ought　to　be　neglected　or　interrupted。　　Under　the　lash　of　necessity
  and　of　the　crisis　they　have　put　their　backs　to　it；　and；　if　we　take
  their　word　for　it；　they　hauled　the　public　cart　out　of　the　mud；　but
  they　had　no　idea　of　putting　themselves　permanently　in　harness　to
  drag　it　along　themselves。　　Confined　as　this　class　has　been　for
  centuries　to　private　life；　each　has　his　own　wheelbarrow　to　trundle
  along；　and　it　is　for　this；　before　all　and　above　all；　that　he　holds
  himself　responsible。　　From　the　beginning　of　the　year　1790　the
  returns　of　the　votes　taken　show　that　as　many　are　absent　as　present；
  at　Besan？on　there　are　only　nine　hundred　and　fifty…nine　voters　out　of
  thirty…two　hundred　inscribed；　four　months　after　this　more　than　one…
  half　of　the　electors　fail　to　come　to　the　polls；＇31＇　and　throughout
  France；　even　at　Paris；　the　indifference　to　voting　keeps　on
  increasing。　　Puppets　of　such　an　administration　as　that　of　Louis　XV。
  and　Louis　XVI。　　do　not　become　Florentine　or　Athenian　citizens　in　a
  single　night。　　The　hearts　and　heads　of　three　or　four　millions　of　men
  are　not　suddenly　endowed　with　faculties　and　habits　which　render　them
  capable　of　diverting　one…third　of　their　energies　to　work　which　is
  new；　disproportionate；　gratuitous；　and　supererogatory。　…　A　fallacy
  of　monstrous　duplicity　lies　at　the　basis　of　the　political　theories
  of　the　day　and　of　those　which　were　invented　during　the　following　ten
  years。　　Arbitrarily；　and　without　any　examination；　a　certain　weight
  and　resistance　are　attributed　to　the　human　metal　employed。　　It　is
  found　on　trial　to　have　ten　times　less　resistance　and　twenty　times
  more　weight　than　was　supposed。
  V。　　The　Ruling　Minority。
  The　restless　minority。　…　Its　elements。…　The　clubs。…　Their
  ascendancy。…　How　they　interpret　the　Rights　of　Man。　…　Their
  usurpations　and　violence。
  In　default　of　the　majority；　who　shirk　their　responsibilities；　it　is
  the　minority　which　does　the　work　and　assumes　the　power。　　The
  majority　having　resigned；　the　minority　becomes　sovereign；　and　public
  business；　abandoned　by　the　hesitating；　weak；　and　absent　multitude；
  falls　into　the　hands　of　the　resolute；　energetic；　ever…present　few
  who　find　the　leisure　and　the　disposition　to　assume　the
  responsibility。　　In　a　system　in　which　all　offices　are　elective；　and
  in　which　elections　are　frequent；　politics　becomes　a　profession　for
  those　who　subordinate　their　private　interests　to　it；　and　who　find　it
  of　personal　advantage；　every　village　contains　five　or　six　men　of
  this　class；　every　borough　twenty　or　thirty；　every　town　its　hundreds
  and　Paris　its　many　thousands。＇32＇　These　are　veritable　active
  citizens　They　alone　give　all　their　time　and　attention　to　public
  matters；　correspond　with　the　newspapers　and　with　the　deputies　at
  Paris；　receive　and　spread　abroad　the　party　watchword　on　every
  important　question；　hold　caucuses；　get　up　meetings；　make　motions；
  draw　up　addresses；　overlook；　rebuke；　or　denounce　the　local
  magistrates；　form　themselves　into　committees；　publish　and　push
  candidates；　and　go　into　the　suburbs　and　the　country　to　canvass　for
  votes。　　They　hold　the　power　in　recompense　for　their　labor；　for　they
  manage　the　elections；　and　are　elected　to　office　or　provided　with
  places　by　the　successful　candidates。　　There　is　a　prodigious　number
  of　these　office