collector；　the　Minister　of　the　Interior；　not　one　of　the
  departmental；　district；　or　communal　administrators；　the　Minister　of
  Justice；　not　one　judge　or　public　prosecutor。　　The　King；　in　these
  three　branches　of　the　service；　has　but　one　officer　of　his　own；　the
  commissioner　whose　duty　it　is　to　advocate　the　observance　of　the　laws
  in　the　courts；　and；　on　sentence　being　given；　to　enforce　its
  execution。　…　All　the　muscles　of　the　central　power　are　paralyzed　by
  this　stroke；　and　henceforth　each　department　is　a　State　apart；　living
  by　itself。
  An　similar　amputation；　however；　in　the　department　itself；　has　cut
  away　all　the　ties　by　which　the　superior　could　control　and　direct　his
  subordinate。　…　If　the　administrators　of　the　department　are　suffered
  to　influence　those　of　the　district；　and　those　of　the　district　those
  of　the　municipality；　it　is　only；　again；　in　the　way　of　council　and
  solicitation。　　Nowhere　is　the　superior　a　commander　who　orders　and
  constrains；　but　everywhere　a　censor　who　gives　warnings　and　scolds。
  To　render　this　already　feeble　authority　still　more　feeble　at　each
  step　of　the　hierarchy；　it　is　divided　among　several　bodies。　　These
  consist　of　superposed　councils；　which　administer　the　department；　the
  district；　and　the　commune。　　There　is　no　directing　head　in　any　of
  these　councils。　　Permanency　and　executive　functions　throughout　are
  vested　in　the　directories　of　four　or　eight　members；　or　in　bureaus　of
  two；　three；　four；　six；　and　even　seven　members　whose　elected　chief；　a
  president　or　mayor；＇13＇　has　simply　an　honorary　primacy。　　Decision
  and　action；　everywhere　blunted；　delayed；　or　curtailed　by　talk　and
  the　processes　of　discussion；　are　brought　forth　only　after　the
  difficult；　tumultuous　assent　of　several　discordant　wills。＇14＇
  Elective　and　collective　as　these　powers　are；　measures　are　still
  taken　to　guard　against　them。　　Not　only　are　they　subject　to　the
  control　of　an　elected　council；　one…half　renewable　every　two　years；
  but；　again；　the　mayor　and　public　prosecutor　of　the　commune　after
  serving　four　years；　and　the　procureur…syndic　of　the　department　or
  district　after　eight　years　service；　and　the　district　collector　after
  six　years'　service；　are　not　re…elected。　　Should　these　officials　have
  deserved　and　won　the　confidence　of　the　electors；　should　familiarity
  with　affairs　have　made　them　specially　competent　and　valuable；　so
  much　the　worse　for　affairs　and　the　public　；　they　are　not　to　be
  anchored　to　their　post。＇15＇　　Should　their　continuance　in　office
  introduce　into　the　service　a　spirit　of　order　and　economy；　that　is　of
  no　consequence；　there　is　danger　of　their　acquiring　to　much
  influence；　and　the　law　sends　them　off　as　soon　as　they　become　expert
  and　entitled　to　rule。　…　Never　has　jealousy　and　suspicion　been　more
  on　the　alert　against　power；　even　legal　and　legitimate。　　Sapping　and
  mining　goes　on　even　in　services　which　are　recognized　as　essential；
  as　the　army　and　the　gendarmerie。＇16＇　　In　the　army；　on　the
  appointment　of　a　non…commissioned　officer；　the　other　non…
  commissioned　officers　make　up　a　list　of　candidates；　and　the　captain
  selects　three；　one　of　whom　is　chosen　by　the　colonel。　In　the　choice
  of　a　sub…lieutenant；　all　the　officers　of　the　regiment　vote；　and　he
  who　receives　a　majority　is　appointed。　　In　the　gendarmerie；　for　the
  appointment　of　a　gendarme；　the　directory　of　the　department　forms　a
  list；　the　colonel　designates　five　names　on　it；　and　the　directory
  selects　one　of　them。　　For　the　choice　of　a　corporal；　quartermaster　or
  lieutenant；　there　is；　besides　the　directory　and　the　colonel；　another
  intervention；　that　of　the　officers；　both　commissioned　and　non…
  commissioned。　　It　is　a　system　of　elective　complications　and　lot…
  drawings；　one　which；　giving　a　voice　in　the　choice　of　officers　to　the
  civil　authorities　and　to　military　subordinates；　leaves　the　colonel
  with　only　a　third　or　one…quarter　of　his　former　ascendancy。　　In
  relation　to　the　National　Guard；　the　new　principle　is　applied　without
  any　reservation。　　All　the　officers　and　non…commissioned　officers　up
  to　the　grade　of　captain　are　elected　by　their　own　men。　　All　the
  superior　officers　are　elected　by　the　inferior　officers。　　All　under…
  officers　and　all　inferior　and　superior　officers　are　elected　for　one
  year　only；　and　are　not　eligible　for　re…election　until　after　an
  interval　of　a　year；　during　which　they　must　serve　in　the　ranks。＇17＇
  …　The　result　is　manifest：　command；　in　every　civil　and　in　every
  military　order；　becomes　upset；　subalterns　are　no　longer　precise　and
  trustworthy　instruments；　the　chief　no　longer　has　any　practical　hold
  on　them；　his　orders；　consequently；　encounter　only　tame　obedience；
  doubtful　deference；　sometimes　even　open　resistance；　their　execution
  remains　dilatory；　uncertain；　incomplete；　and　at　length　is　utterly
  neglected；　a　latent　and　soon　flagrant　system　of　disorganization　is
  instituted　by　the　law。　　Step　by　step；　in　the　hierarchy　of
  Government；　power　has　slipped　downwards；　and　henceforth　belongs　by
  virtue　of　the　Constitution　to　the　authorities　who　sit　at　the　bottom
  of　the　ladder。　　It　is　not　the　King；　or　the　minister；　or　the
  directory　of　the　department　or　of　the　district　who　rules；　but　its
  municipal　officers；　and　their　sway　is　as　omnipotent　as　it　can　be　in
  a　small　independent　republic。　　They　alone　have　the　〃strong　hand〃
  with　which　to　search　the　pockets　of　refractory　tax…payers；　and
  ensure　the　collection　of　the　revenue；　to　seize　the　rioter　by　the
  throat；　and　protect　life　and　property；　in　short；　to　convert　the
  promises　and　menaces　of　the　law　into　acts。　　Every　armed　force；　the
  National　Guard；　the　regulars；　and　the　gendarmerie；　must　march　on
  their　requisition。　　They　alone；　among　the　body　of　administrators；
  are　endowed　with　this　sovereign　right；　all　that　the　department　or
  the　district　can　do　is　to　invite　them　to　exercise　it。　　It　is　they
  who　proclaim　martial　law。　　Accordingly；　the　sword　is　in　their
  hands。＇18＇　Assisted　by　commissioners　who　are　appointed　by　the
  council…general　of　the　commune；　they　prepare　the　schedule　of
  taxation　of　real　and　personal　property；　fix　the　quota　of　each　tax…
  payer；　adjust　assessments；　verify　the　registers　and　the　collector's
  receipts；　audit　his　accounts；　discharge　the　insolvent；　answer　for
  returns　and　authorize　prosecutions。＇19＇　Private　purses　are；　in　this
  way；　at　their　mercy；　and　they　take　from　them　whatever　they　determine
  to　belong　to　the　public。　…　With　the　purse　and　the　sword　in　their
  hands　they　lack　nothing　that　is　necessary　to　make　them　masters；　and
  all　the　more　because　the　application　of　every　law　belongs　to　them；
  because　no　orders　of　the　Assembly　to　the　King；　of　the　King　to　the
  ministers；　of　ministers　to　the　departments；　of　departments　to　the
  districts；　of　the　districts　to　the　communes；　brings　about　any　real
  local　result　except　through　them；　because　each　measure　of　general
  application　undergoes　their　special　interpretation；　and　can　always
  be　optionally　disfigured；　softened；　or　exaggerated　according　to
  their　timidity；　inertia；　violence　or　partiality。　　Moreover；　they　are
  not　long　in　discovering　their　strength。　　We　see　them　on　all　sides
  arguing　with　their　superiors　against　district；　departmental；　and
  ministerial　orders；　and　even　against　the　Assembly　itself；　alleging
  circumstances；　lack　of　means；　their　own　danger　and　the　public
  safety；　failing　to　obey；　acting　for　themselves；　openly　disobeying
  and　glorying　in　the　act；＇20＇　and　claiming；　as　a　right；　the
  omnipotence　which　they　exercise　in　point　of　fact。　　Those　of　Troyes；
  at　the　festival　of　the　Federation；　refuse　to　submit　to　the
  precedence　of　the　department　and　claim　it　for　themselves；　as
  〃immediate　representatives　of　the　people。〃　Those　of　Brest；
  notwithstanding　the　reiterated　prohibitions　of　their　district；
  dispatch　four　hundred　men　and　two　cannon　to　force　the　submission　of
  a　neighboring　commune　to　a　cure'　who　has　taken　the　oath。　　Those　of
  Arnay…le…Duc　arrest　Mesdames　（the　King's　aunts）；　in　spite　of　their
  passport　signed　by　the　ministers；　hold　them　in　spite　of　departmental
  and　district　orders；　persist　in　barring　the　way　to　them　in　spite　of
  a　special　decree　of　the　National　Assembly；　and　send　two　deputies　to
  Paris　to　obtain　the　sanction　of　their　decision。　　What　with　arsenals
  pillaged；　citadels　invaded；　convoys　arrested；　couriers　stopped；
  letters　intercepted；　constant　and　increasing　insubordination；
  usurpations　without　truce　or　measure；　the　municipalities　arrogate　to
  themselves　every　species　of　license　on　their　own　territory　and
  frequently　outside　of　it。　　Henceforth；　forty　thousand　sovereign
  bodies　exist　in　the　kingdom。　　Force　is　placed　in　their　hands；　and
  they　make　good　use　of　it。　　They　make　such　good　use　of　it　that　one　of
  them；　the　commune　of　Paris；　taking　advantage　of　its　proximity；　lays
  siege　to；　mutilates；　and　rules　the　National　Convention；　and　through
  it　France。
  III。　　MUNICIPAL　KINGDOMS。
  The　Municipal　bodies。　…　Their　great　task。　…　Their　incapacity。　…
  Their　feeble　authority。…　Insufficiency　of　their　means　of　action。　…
  The　role　of　the　National　G